Category: ISC

Download ISC Specimen Papers 2020 Solved for Class 11 Accounts and Marking Scheme PDF. Here we have given ISC Accounts Question Papers 2020 Solved. Students can view or download the Specimen Papers for ISC 2020 with Answers Class 11 Accounts for their upcoming examination.

These ISC Board Sample Papers are useful to understand the pattern of questions asked in the board exam. Know about the important concepts to be prepared for ISC Class 11 Accounts board exam and Score More marks.

Board – Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), www.cisce.org
Class – Class 11
Subject – Accounts
Year of Examination – 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017.

ISC Class 11 Accounts Question Papers Solved

www.cisce.org ISC Sample Papers for Class 11 Accounts are part of ISC Specimen Papers Solved for Class 11 Here we have given ISC Class 11 Accounts Sample Question Papers for Class 11 Accounts.

Year of Examination	ISC Accounts Question Paper
2019	Download PDF
2018	Download PDF

The above ISC Model Paper for Class 11 Accounts is the official sample paper released by ISC Board as per latest syllabus of Class 11 Indian Certificate of Secondary Education, India.

We hope the ISC Specimen Papers for Class 11 Accounts, help you. If you have any query regarding ISC Class 11 Accounts Question Papers Solved, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

Download ISC Specimen Papers 2020 Solved for Class 11 Computer Theory and Marking Scheme PDF. Here we have given ISC Computer Theory Question Papers 2020 Solved. Students can view or download the Specimen Papers for ISC 2020 with Answers Class 11 Computer Theory for their upcoming examination.

These ISC Board Sample Papers are useful to understand the pattern of questions asked in the board exam. Know about the important concepts to be prepared for ISC Class 11 Computer Theory board exam and Score More marks.

Board – Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), www.cisce.org
Class – Class 11
Subject – Computer Theory
Year of Examination – 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017.

ISC Class 11 Computer Theory Question Papers Solved

www.cisce.org ISC Sample Papers for Class 11 Computer Theory are part of ISC Specimen Papers Solved for Class 11 Here we have given ISC Class 11 Computer Theory Sample Question Papers for Class 11 Computer Theory.

Year of Examination	ISC Computer Theory Question Paper
2019	Download PDF
2018	Download PDF

The above ISC Model Paper for Class 11 Computer Theory is the official sample paper released by ISC Board as per latest syllabus of Class 11 Indian Certificate of Secondary Education, India.

We hope the ISC Specimen Papers for Class 11 Computer Theory, help you. If you have any query regarding ISC Class 11 Computer Theory Question Papers Solved, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

Download ISC Specimen Papers 2020 Solved for Class 11 English Literature and Marking Scheme PDF. Here we have given ISC English Literature Question Papers 2020 Solved. Students can view or download the Specimen Papers for ISC 2020 with Answers Class 11 English Literature for their upcoming examination.

These ISC Board Sample Papers are useful to understand the pattern of questions asked in the board exam. Know about the important concepts to be prepared for ISC Class 11 English Literature board exam and Score More marks.

Board – Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), www.cisce.org
Class – Class 11
Subject – English Literature
Year of Examination – 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017.

ISC Class 11 English Literature Question Papers Solved

www.cisce.org ISC Sample Papers for Class 11 English Literature are part of ISC Specimen Papers Solved for Class 11 Here we have given ISC Class 11 English Literature Sample Question Papers for Class 11 English Literature.

Year of Examination	ISC English Literature Question Paper
2019	Download PDF
2018	Download PDF

The above ISC Model Paper for Class 11 English Literature is the official sample paper released by ISC Board as per latest syllabus of Class 11 Indian Certificate of Secondary Education, India.

We hope the ISC Specimen Papers for Class 11 English Literature, help you. If you have any query regarding ISC Class 11 English Literature Question Papers Solved, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

Download ISC Specimen Papers 2020 Solved for Class 11 English Language and Marking Scheme PDF. Here we have given ISC English Language Question Papers 2020 Solved. Students can view or download the Specimen Papers for ISC 2020 with Answers Class 11 English Language for their upcoming examination.

These ISC Board Sample Papers are useful to understand the pattern of questions asked in the board exam. Know about the important concepts to be prepared for ISC Class 11 English Language board exam and Score More marks.

Board – Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), www.cisce.org
Class – Class 11
Subject – English Language
Year of Examination – 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017.

ISC Class 11 English Language Question Papers Solved

www.cisce.org ISC Sample Papers for Class 11 English Language are part of ISC Specimen Papers Solved for Class 11 Here we have given ISC Class 11 English Language Sample Question Papers for Class 11 English Language.

Year of Examination	ISC English Language Question Paper
2019	Download PDF
2018	Download PDF

The above ISC Model Paper for Class 11 English Language is the official sample paper released by ISC Board as per latest syllabus of Class 11 Indian Certificate of Secondary Education, India.

We hope the ISC Specimen Papers for Class 11 English Language, help you. If you have any query regarding ISC Class 11 English Language Question Papers Solved, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

Download ISC Specimen Papers 2020 Solved for Class 11 Biology and Marking Scheme PDF. Here we have given ISC Biology Question Papers 2020 Solved. Students can view or download the Specimen Papers for ISC 2020 with Answers Class 11 Biology for their upcoming examination.

These ISC Board Sample Papers are useful to understand the pattern of questions asked in the board exam. Know about the important concepts to be prepared for ISC Class 11 Biology board exam and Score More marks.

Board – Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), www.cisce.org
Class – Class 11
Subject – Biology
Year of Examination – 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017.

ISC Class 11 Biology Question Papers Solved

www.cisce.org ISC Sample Papers for Class 11 Biology are part of ISC Specimen Papers Solved for Class 11 Here we have given ISC Class 11 Biology Sample Question Papers for Class 11 Biology.

Year of Examination	ISC Biology Question Paper
2019	Download PDF
2018	Download PDF

The above ISC Model Paper for Class 11 Biology is the official sample paper released by ISC Board as per latest syllabus of Class 11 Indian Certificate of Secondary Education, India.

We hope the ISC Specimen Papers for Class 11 Biology, help you. If you have any query regarding ISC Class 11 Biology Question Papers Solved, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

Download ISC Specimen Papers 2020 Solved for Class 11 Chemsitry and Marking Scheme PDF. Here we have given ISC Chemsitry Question Papers 2020 Solved. Students can view or download the Specimen Papers for ISC 2020 with Answers Class 11 Chemsitry for their upcoming examination.

These ISC Board Sample Papers are useful to understand the pattern of questions asked in the board exam. Know about the important concepts to be prepared for ISC Class 11 Chemsitry board exam and Score More marks.

Board – Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), www.cisce.org
Class – Class 11
Subject – Chemsitry
Year of Examination – 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017.

ISC Class 11 Chemsitry Question Papers Solved

www.cisce.org ISC Sample Papers for Class 11 Chemsitry are part of ISC Specimen Papers Solved for Class 11 Here we have given ISC Class 11 Chemsitry Sample Question Papers for Class 11 Chemsitry.

Year of Examination	ISC Chemsitry Question Paper
2019	Download PDF
2018	Download PDF

The above ISC Model Paper for Class 11 Chemsitry is the official sample paper released by ISC Board as per latest syllabus of Class 11 Indian Certificate of Secondary Education, India.

We hope the ISC Specimen Papers for Class 11 Chemsitry, help you. If you have any query regarding ISC Class 11 Chemsitry Question Papers Solved, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

Download ISC Specimen Papers 2020 Solved for Class 11 Physics and Marking Scheme PDF. Here we have given ISC Physics Question Papers 2020 Solved. Students can view or download the Specimen Papers for ISC 2020 with Answers Class 11 Physics for their upcoming examination.

These ISC Board Sample Papers are useful to understand the pattern of questions asked in the board exam. Know about the important concepts to be prepared for ISC Class 11 Physics board exam and Score More marks.

Board – Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), www.cisce.org
Class – Class 11
Subject – Physics
Year of Examination – 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017.

ISC Class 11 Physics Question Papers Solved

www.cisce.org ISC Sample Papers for Class 11 Physics are part of ISC Specimen Papers Solved for Class 11 Here we have given ISC Class 11 Physics Sample Question Papers for Class 11 Physics.

Year of Examination	ISC Physics Question Paper
2019	Download PDF
2018	Download PDF

The above ISC Model Paper for Class 11 Physics is the official sample paper released by ISC Board as per latest syllabus of Class 11 Indian Certificate of Secondary Education, India.

We hope the ISC Specimen Papers for Class 11 Physics, help you. If you have any query regarding ISC Class 11 Physics Question Papers Solved, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

Download ISC Specimen Papers 2020 Solved for Class 11 Maths and Marking Scheme PDF. Here we have given ISC Maths Question Papers 2020 Solved. Students can view or download the Specimen Papers for ISC 2020 with Answers Class 11 Maths for their upcoming examination.

These ISC Board Sample Papers are useful to understand the pattern of questions asked in the board exam. Know about the important concepts to be prepared for ISC Class 11 Maths board exam and Score More marks.

Board – Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), www.cisce.org
Class – Class 11
Subject – Maths
Year of Examination – 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017.

ISC Class 11 Maths Question Papers Solved

www.cisce.org ISC Sample Papers for Class 11 Maths are part of ISC Specimen Papers Solved for Class 11 Here we have given ISC Class 11 Maths Sample Question Papers for Class 11 Maths.

Year of Examination	ISC Maths Question Paper
2019	Download PDF
2018	Download PDF

The above ISC Model Paper for Class 11 Maths is the official sample paper released by ISC Board as per latest syllabus of Class 11 Indian Certificate of Secondary Education, India.

We hope the ISC Specimen Papers for Class 11 Maths, help you. If you have any query regarding ISC Class 11 Maths Question Papers Solved, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

ISC Hindi Previous Year Question Paper 2015 Solved for Class 12

Section-A

Question 1.
Write a composition in Hindi in approximately 400 words on any ONE of the topics given below :- [20]
निम्नलिखित विषयों में से किसी एक विषय पर लगभग 400 शब्दों में हिन्दी में निबन्ध लिखिये-
(a) नारी : माँ, बहन, पत्नी तथा बेटी हर रूप में आदरणीय है। विवेचन कीजिए।
(b) जीवन में सुख-समृद्धि पाने के लिए हर व्यक्ति अपने लिए किसी व्यवसाय को चुनना चाहता है। आप अपने लिए किस व्यवसाय को चुनना पसन्द करेंगे। उसकी प्राप्ति के लिए आप क्या-क्या प्रयत्न करेंगे तथा उससे देश व समाज को क्या लाभ होगा।
(c) “मानव की अतिमहत्वाकांक्षा ने ही प्रदूषण जैसी विकराल समस्या को जन्म दिया है।” इस कथन के पक्ष या विपक्ष में अपने विचार प्रकट करें।
(d) आज के युग में टूटते परिवार।
(e) किसी ऐसे चलचित्र का वर्णन कीजिए जिसे आपने अपने परिवार के साथ देखा। उस चलचित्र के निर्देशन, संगीत निर्देशन, कहानी तथा कहानी से मिलने वाली शिक्षा का वर्णन करते हुए बताएं कि वह चलचित्र आपको किस कारण से बहुत अच्छा लगा।
(f) निम्नलिखित विषयों में से किसी एक विषय पर मौलिक कहानी लिखिए

(i) कहानी का अन्तिम वाक्य होगा ……………………….
………………………. “पिताजी के मार्गदर्शन से ही आज मैं
इस योग्य बना हूँ।”

(ii) कहानी की शुरुआत नीचे लिखे वाक्य से कीजिए :
“एक दिन मेरा पड़ोसी” ……………………….
Answer:
(a)

नारी : माँ, बहन, पत्नी तथा बेटी के रूप में

सृष्टि के आदिकाल से ही नारी की महत्ता अक्षुण्ण है। नारी सृजन की पूर्णता है। उसके अभाव में मानवता के विकास की कल्पना असम्भव है। समाज के रचना विधान में नारी के निम्न रूप हैं माँ, प्रेयसी, पत्नी, बहन तथा पुत्री। हम अपने जीवन में नारी के इन विभिन्न रूपों से किसी न किसी तरह सम्बन्ध रखते हैं तथा यह रूप हमारे जीवन को किसी न किसी रूप में प्रभावित भी करते हैं।

जब बालक जन्म लेता है तो नारी का ममतामयी माँ का रूप उसका पालन-पोषण करता है। यह नारी का सबसे प्रभावशाली रूप है। माँ को बच्चे की प्रथम शिक्षिका के रूप में जाना जाता है क्योंकि बच्चा सर्वप्रथम संस्कार, विचार या शिक्षा माँ से ही ग्रहण करता है। माँ द्वारा दिये गये संस्कार पर ही यह निर्भर करता है कि उसका भविष्य में कैसा आचरण रहेगा।

नारी का एक और महत्वपूर्ण रूप है— बहन। हमारे सर्वप्रथम मित्र के रूप में हम अपने बहन-भाई को देखते हैं। बाहरी संसार में हमारे मित्र विद्यालय में प्रवेश के बाद बनते हैं, परन्तु बहन एक व्यक्ति की जीवन की सर्वप्रथम मित्र होती है, जो आपकी छोटी-छोटी गलतियों पर सीख देती है, उन गलतियों को माता-पिता से छिपाती है तथा आपको हमेशा गलत राह पर जाने से रोकती है। माँ की तरह आपको डाँटती भी है और एक मित्र की तरह आपकी समस्याओं का समाधान भी करती है। इसलिए हमें कभी भी नारी का अपमान नहीं करना चाहिए तथा हमेशा उसे सम्मान की दृष्टि से देखना चाहिए। नारी का एक अत्यन्त महत्वपूर्ण रूप को गृहलक्ष्मी, गृहदेवी या गृहणी के नाम से सम्बोधित किया जाता है।

नारी पत्नी के रूप में भी उतनी ही आदरणीय है जितनी की माँ और बहन के रूप में, पत्नी को जीवनसंगिनी भी कहते हैं अर्थात् जीवन भर साथ देने वाली नारी। एक पत्नी अपने कर्तव्य को पूर्ण करते हुए अपने पति का ही नहीं अपितु पूरे परिवार की सुख-सुविधा तथा उनकी आवश्यकताओं का ध्यान रखती है, मित्र की तरह आपके हर सुख-दुःख में साथ देती है तथा जीवन के हर मोड़ पर हर परेशानी में आपके साथ खड़ी रहती है। इस प्रकार हम कह सकते हैं कि नारी संसार की उत्पत्ति एवं भरण-पोषण का मुख्य कार्य करती है। पुरुष का साथ वह कभी मातृशक्ति बनकर देती है तो कभी बहन, कभी प्रेयसी के रूप में सहायता करती है, तो कभी पत्नी बनकर। हर परिस्थिति में, हर रूप में वह पुरुष का साथ देती है। इस प्रकार हम कह सकते हैं कि नारी का प्रत्येक रूप आदरणीय तथा सम्माननीय है।

(b)

जीवन में सुख-समृद्धि के लिए
किसी व्यवसाय का चुनाव

जीवन में सुख-समृद्धि पाने के लिए हर व्यक्ति अपने लिए किसी व्यवसाय को चुनना चाहता है। मैं अपने जीवन में एक सुयोग्य शिक्षक बनकर देश की प्रगति में योगदान दूंगा। मनुष्य विश्व का सर्वश्रेष्ठ प्राणी है, क्योंकि वह मनन, चिन्तन तथा विचारपूर्वक ही कोई कार्य करता है। शिक्षा का क्षेत्र बड़ा व्यापक है। इसमें कार्य करके परोपकार और देश के विकास में सहयोग होगा। मैं एक आदर्श शिक्षक बनूँगा और हर प्रकार से छात्रों की सहायता कर उन्हें शिक्षित करूँगा। जिन देशों की अधिकतर जनसंख्या शिक्षित है, वे निरन्तर उन्नति के पथ पर अग्रसर हो रहे हैं।

मनुष्य एक बौद्धिक प्राणी है। जिसके हृदय में दृढ़ संकल्प, अदम्य साहस और एक निश्चित उद्देश्य हो वह भावी योजनाओं का चिन्तन-मनन करके अपने ध्येय की ओर उन्मुख होता है, वही अपनी मंजिल पाने में सफल होता है। मैं आज एक विद्यार्थी हूँ पर भविष्य में मुझे क्या बनना है? इसके लिए मेरे मन में कई कल्पनायें हैं।

शिक्षण काल से ही मेरी रुचि पढ़ने-पढ़ाने में रही। मेरे गुरुजी ने एक बार मुझसे कहा कि मुझमें एक आदर्श अध्यापक बनने के गुण हैं। उसी दिन से मैंने अपने जीवन का लक्ष्य निर्धारित कर लिया। इसके लिए मुझे आदर्श विद्यार्थी बनना होगा, तपस्वी के समान तपस्या, सैनिक के समान अनुशासन और पृथ्वी के समान सहनशीलता को अपनाना होगा। तभी आदर्श अध्यापक बन सकता कुछ अध्यापक तो केवल जीविकोपार्जन के लिए ही अध्यापक बने हैं, लेकिन अध्यापक गुरुत्ता और महिमा की प्रतिमा, विद्या का प्रकाशस्तम्भ हैं। उनका पुनीत कर्तव्य शिष्यों के अन्धकार को दूर करना है क्योंकि विद्या ही सर्वोच्च धन है। विद्या दान सबसे बड़ा दान है। गुरु के कर्तव्य के अनुसार उनमें चारित्रिक और नैतिक भावनाओं को भी जगाऊँगा। मैं उनके सामने त्याग, प्रेम, परोपकार और सेवा का आदर्श स्थापित करूँगा। मैं किसी दुर्व्यसन का शिकार नहीं बनूँगा। मेरा रहन-सहन अत्यन्त सरल तथा स्वच्छ रहेगा। इस पुनीत कार्य से मुझे जीवन भर सन्तोष और शान्ति मिलती रहेगी। मैं कबीर के कथनानुसार ऐसा ‘गुरु’ बनूँगा जो शिष्य को बाह्य रूप से ताड़ना देता हुआ भी हार्दिक भावना से उसका मंगल करे।

“गुरु कुम्हार शिष कुम्भ है, गढ़ि गढ़ि काढ़े खोट।
अन्तर हाथ सहार दै, बाहर बाहै चोट॥”

ईश्वर से यही प्रार्थना है कि मुझे इतनी सामर्थ्य प्रदान करे कि मैं अपने लक्ष्य को प्राप्त कर राष्ट्र के नवनिर्माण में अपना सहयोग प्रदान कर सकूँ। दुःखी जनों के दुःख का निवारण कर सत्पथ पर उन्हें चलाने का प्रयास करूं। निराशा का भाव किसी के मन में न आने दूँ और अशिक्षा को दूर कर सभी को शिक्षित करूँ, ऐसी मेरी कामना है। वास्तव में शिक्षक ही राष्ट्र का निर्माता होता है।

कर्म के साथ ईश्वर की अनुकम्पा यदि रहे तो सच्चा मनुष्य अपने पथ पर निर्भीक होकर बढ़ता है। श्रेष्ठ उद्देश्य मन में लेकर जो कार्य करता है, वह हमेशा सफल होता है। प्रार्थना यदि सच्चे मन से की जाय तो वह कभी निष्फल नहीं जाती। मैं अपने शिक्षक होने को राष्ट्र के प्रति उत्तरदायित्व मानकर सच्ची भावना से छात्रों को शिक्षा देकर राष्ट्रपक्ष के निर्माण में सहयोग प्रदान करूँगा।

(c)

प्रदूषण की समस्या के लिए उत्तरदायी
मानव की अति महत्वाकांक्षा

पक्ष : “मानव की अति महत्वाकांक्षा ने ही प्रदूषण जैसी विकराल समस्या को जन्म दिया है।” मैं इस कथन से सहमत हूँ। विज्ञान की प्रगति ने जहाँ समाज को अनेक वरदान दिए हैं, वहीं उनके कुछ अभिशाप भी हैं। उनमें एक है प्रदूषण। इसने कुछ वर्षों में विकराल रूप धारण कर लिया है। प्रगति एवं भौतिकवाद की अंधी दौड़ में पर्यावरण दूषित होकर विनाश की ओर जा रहा है। जब हवा, पानी, मिट्टी, रोशनी, समुद्र, पहाड़, जंगल, रेगिस्तान और नदी आदि की स्वाभाविक अवस्था में दोष उत्पन्न हो जाता है, तब प्रदूषण की स्थिति बन जाती है।

जनसंख्या वृद्धि तथा पदार्थों के दुरुपयोग के कारण प्रदूषित गैसें “. वायुमण्डल में घटित हो जाती हैं और प्राणीमात्र के जीवन पर प्रतिकूल प्रभाव डालती हैं। इस प्रदूषण में वे सभी पदार्थ एवं ऊर्जा सम्मिलित हैं जो कि प्रत्यक्ष अथवा परोक्ष रूप से मानव स्वास्थ्य को प्रभावित करते हैं। प्रदूषण तीन रूपों में सर्वाधिक व्यापक है- वायु, जल और ध्वनि। वायु प्राणियों का जीवन है। वायु प्रदूषण वाहनों के धुएँ, ज्वालामुखी के फटने, लकड़ी, कोयले और खनिज तेल के जलने, औद्योगिक संस्थानों से निकलने वाली हानिकारक गैसों के निकलने के कारण होता है।

वायु की भाँति जल भी प्राणी के लिए आवश्यक है। जल के अन्दर अनेक कार्बनिक-अकार्बनिक पदार्थ तथा गैसें पाई जाती हैं। इनकी असन्तुलित मात्रा, जल को प्रदूषित कर देती है। जल और वायु की भाँति ध्वनि भी वातावरण को प्रदूषित करके श्रवण इन्द्रियों को हानि पहुँचाती है। लाउडस्पीकर, औद्योगिक संस्थानों की मशीनों का शोरगुल तथा विविध प्रकार के संवाहनों की कर्कश आवाज ध्वनि प्रदूषण के कारण हैं।

यद्यपि प्रदूषण जैसी विकराल समस्या मानव की अति महत्वाकांक्षा के कारण ही उत्पन्न हुई है, लेकिन इस समस्या से निजात पाने के लिए हमें और सरकार को शीघ्रातिशीघ्र उपाय करने चाहिए। वृक्षारोपण पर जोर दिया जाये, नगरों और गाँवों की सफाई रखी जाय, पेयजल को प्रदूषण से बचाया जाय, अधिक धुआँ छोड़ने वाले वाहनों पर रोक लगाई जाये तथा नदियों को प्रदूषण से बचाया जाय। केन्द्र सरकार इस समय प्रदूषण के निराकरण के लिए बहुत से उपाय कर रही है।

विपक्ष : “मानव की अति महत्वाकांक्षा ने ही प्रदूषण जैसी विकराल समस्या को जन्म दिया है।” मैं इस कथन से सहमत नहीं हूँ। आधुनिक युग विज्ञान का युग है। विज्ञान ने हमें सुख-सुविधा के अनेक साधन दिए हैं। सृष्टि के समस्त जीव अपने जीवन को सुचारु रूप से चलाने के लिए सन्तुलित वातावरण की अपेक्षा करते हैं। हमारे जीवन में जितने भी सुख-सुविधा के साधन हैं, वे हमारी प्रगति में और देश की प्रगति में सहायक हैं। हाँ उनके प्रयोग से थोड़ा-बहुत प्रदूषण अवश्य होता है, लेकिन उसको नजरअन्दाज कर दिया जाता है। तेल से चलने वाले वाहनों से प्रदूषण न हो अतः इसके लिए अधिकतर वाहन सी. एन. जी. से या बिजली द्वारा चलाए जाते हैं। अधिकतर रेलगाड़ियाँ भी बिजली द्वारा संचालित होती हैं।

भौतिकवाद के प्रसार में कारखाने महत्वपूर्ण स्थान रखते हैं। इनसे लोगों को रोजगार मिलता है और समाज के लिए अनेक उपयोगी वस्तुएँ उत्पादित होती हैं। सरकार ऐसे प्रयास कर रही है कि उनसे प्रदूषण न हो और वे अपना कचरा नदियों में न डालकर अन्य तरीकों से नष्ट कर दें। नदियों को भी जल प्रदूषण से बचाने के लिए अनेक योजनाएँ सरकार ने बनायी हैं।

वृक्षारोपण से शुद्ध वायु प्राप्त होती है। थोड़े से प्रदूषण के भय से मानव अपनी प्रगति नहीं छोड़ सकता है। जनसंख्या के बढ़ने से उनके आवास और रोजगार के प्रबन्ध भी करने पड़ते हैं। ऐसे उपाय किए जा रहे हैं कि प्रदूषण से लोग कम से कम प्रभावित हों। सरकार का भी प्रयास है कि समाज को प्रदूषण से राहत दिलाई जाय।

(d)

आज के युग में टूटते परिवार

आज के युग में भौतिकता, अदूरदर्शिता एवं स्वार्थ-सुख के प्रलोभन में परिवार टूटते जा रहे हैं। संयुक्त परिवार धीरे-धीरे एकल परिवार की ओर बढ़ रहे हैं। परिवार न केवल मानव-जीवन के प्रवाह को जारी रखने वाला अखण्ड स्रोत है, बल्कि मानवोचित गुणों की प्रथम पाठशाला भी है। परिवार को ‘सामाजिक जीवन की अमर पाठशाला’, सामाजिक गुणों का पालना या पाठशाला आदि कहा गया है। इस प्रकार परिवार मानव समाज की आधारभूत एवं सार्वभौमिक सामाजिक संरचना है।

भारत में परिवार की प्रकृति आदिकाल से ही संयुक्त रही है। इसके अन्तर्गत समस्त कुटुम्बीजन सम्मिलित रूप से ही एक मकान में ही निवास करते थे तथा जहाँ पर एक अनुभवशील वयोवृद्ध की सत्ता होती थी। उस परिवेश में प्रेम, सहयोग, सहानुभूति एवं परस्पर त्याग की भावना पूरे परिवार को एक सूत्र में बाँधे रहती थी।

संयुक्त परिवार में रहने के अपरिमित लाभ हैं। बड़े-बूढों के अनुभव का फायदा अन्य लोगों को मिलता है। एक-दूसरे के साथ मिलकर सुख-दुःख में सहायता करते हैं। हारी-बीमारी में एक-दूसरे की सहायता मिल जाती है। छोटे बच्चे दादा-दादी के साथ बड़े चाव से रहते हैं। दूसरी तरफ विभक्त परिवार में पति-पत्नी और बच्चे रहते हैं। इस एकल परिवार में यदि पति-पत्नी दोनों नौकरी करते हैं तो बच्चों को कहाँ छोड़ें, यह समस्या सामने आती है। जो परिवार अकेले रहते हैं, उन्हें भी संयुक्त परिवार में ही रहने की आवश्यकता अनुभव होती है।

संयुक्त परिवार के टूटने के निम्न कारण हैं- कुछ लोग तो माता-पिता के टोकने के कारण उनका दखल नहीं चाहते और अकेले रहना पसंद करते हैं। दूसरा कारण अलग होने का यह है कि बेटे की नौकरी दूसरे शहर में या विदेश में लग गई है तो वह अपनी पत्नी को लेकर चला जाता है और माँ-बाप पुराने स्थान पर ही रहते हैं। कुछ मनचले युवक-युवती, माता-पिता को एक बोझ समझने लगते हैं इसलिए अलग हो जाते हैं कि उनकी स्वतन्त्रता में बाधा न पड़े, परन्तु उनकी यह सोच गलत है।

परिवार का विभाजन आधुनिक काल में ही हुआ। लोगों में स्वार्थ की प्रवृत्ति का बढ़ना और घूमने-फिरने की आजादी की चाह होना, माता-पिता को अपने परिवार में न माना जाना, इन्हीं कारणों से विभाजित परिवार का चलन बढ़ा। जैसे-जैसे बच्चे अपने बुजुर्ग माता-पिता से दूर रहने लगे, वैसे-वैसे ही वृद्धाश्रम खुलते चले गए। विदेशों में तो वृद्धाश्रम बहुत पहले से ही उपयोग में लाए जा रहे हैं, लेकिन भारत में तो अभी हाल में ही इनका उदय हुआ है। संयुक्त परिवार एक आदर्श परिवार है। यहाँ एक-दूसरे की आवश्यकता का ध्यान रखा जाता है। परिवार के मुखिया का पूरे परिवार पर नियन्त्रण रहता है। वह सभी का उचित मार्ग-दर्शन करता है। सब लोग उसका आदर करते हैं और उसकी बात मानी जाती है। ऐसे परिवार में लोग कोई गलत काम नहीं करते और न उन्हें अति की स्वतन्त्रता होती है। उनके परिवार का खर्चा बड़ों की राय के अनुसार होता है और फिजूलखर्ची नहीं होती। बुजुर्गों के पास अपने जीवन का अनुभव होता है। वे अपने बच्चों का मार्गदर्शन करते रहते हैं। –

1. भारत में संयुक्त परिवार प्रणाली ही सर्वोत्तम प्रणाली है। यह आगे आने वाले समय तक अपना महत्त्व रखेगी।
2. सन्त समाज भी संयुक्त परिवार प्रणाली की ही वकालत करता है। सद्गृहस्थ वही है जो अपने पूरे परिवार को मिलाकर चलता है।
3. यदि किसी संयुक्त परिवार में किसी बात को लेकर दरार पड़ जाती है तो भी वह परिवार विभाजित हो जाता है और लोग अलग-अलग रहने लगते हैं।
4. भारत का युवावर्ग पाश्चात्य सभ्यता से प्रभावित होकर भारतीय संस्कृति को भूला जा रहा है और एकल परिवार की ओर दौड़ रहा है।
5. पहले भारत में जितने भी महापुरुष हुए हैं वे संयुक्त परिवार में ही रहते थे और संयुक्त परिवार में रहने की सभी को प्रेरणा देते थे। अंग्रेजी संस्कृति और शिक्षा ने बहुत से परिवारों को विभाजित कर दिया।

(e)

चलचित्र का वर्णन

विज्ञान ने आज मनुष्य को मनोरंजन के साधन भी प्रचुर मात्रा में उपलब्ध कराए हैं, जिनमें सिनेमा प्रमुख है। हमारे परिवार में पाँच लोग हैं-मैं, मम्मी, पापा और दादा-दादी। इस समय हमारे शहर में धार्मिक फिल्म ‘हरिदर्शन’ लगी हुई थी। उसकी बड़ी प्रशंसा हम लोगों ने सुनी। अतः रविवार को हम सभी ने जाने का विचार बनाया।

अगले दिन हम सब अपनी गाड़ी से उस सिनेमा हॉल में पहुँचे जहाँ ‘हरिदर्शन’ नामक चलचित्र लगा हुआ था। तीन बजकर कुछ मिनट पर फिल्म शुरू हई। हरिदर्शन’ फिल्म में भक्त प्रह्लाद की कथा प्रारम्भ हुई। शीर्षक गीत से ही मधुर संगीतमय प्रस्तावना शुरू हुई। संगीत कर्णप्रिय था और हृदय में ईश्वर के प्रति भक्ति भावना जागृत कर रहा था। राक्षसराज हिरण्यकश्यप के यहाँ भक्त प्रह्लाद का जन्म हुआ था।

प्रह्लाद बचपन से ही श्री हरि (भगवान विष्णु) का उपासक था और उसके पिता भगवान विष्णु से शत्रुता मानते थे, क्योंकि भगवान विष्णु ने वाराह अवतार लेकर उसके भाई हिरण्याक्ष का वध किया था। प्रह्लाद के पिता ने उसके ऊपर अनेक बन्धन लगाए, लेकिन प्रह्लाद ने अपनी हठ नहीं छोड़ी। उसने बार-बार अपने पिता को समझाने का प्रयत्न किया कि श्री हरि भगवान हैं, उनसे शत्रुता नहीं मित्रता करो, लेकिन हिरण्यकश्यप स्वयं को ही भगवान मानता था और प्रजा से अपनी पूजा करने के लिए कहता। प्रजाजन भयवश राक्षसराज को ही सिर झुकाते थे। प्रह्लाद ने भी अपनी मधुर वाणी से भक्तिपूर्ण गीत गाकर प्रजाजनों और अपने सहपाठियों में विष्णु भक्ति का संचार कर दिया था। हिरण्यकश्यप ने प्रह्लाद को पहाड़ से नीचे फिकवा दिया, लेकिन प्रभु ने उसे अपनी गोद में ले लिया और सुरक्षित महल में पहुँचा दिया।

प्रजा को ईश्वर की सत्ता और महत्ता का पता लगा और गुप्त रूप से भगवान को पूजने लगे। प्रह्लाद को मारने के प्रयास में प्रह्लाद की बुआ होलिका प्रह्लाद को गोद में लेकर लकड़ियों के ढेर पर बैठ गई। उसके पास देव-आशीर्वाद के रूप में एक चादर थी जिसके ओढ़ने से वह आग लगने पर जलेगी नहीं। यह सोचकर प्रह्लाद के पिता हिरण्यकश्यप ने लकड़ियों में आग लगवा दी। चारों ओर लोग इकट्ठे होकर इस दृश्य को दुःखी होकर देखने लगे। हिरण्यकश्यप बड़ा प्रसन्न था, क्योंकि प्रह्लाद को वह अपना शत्रु मानने लगा था। प्रह्लाद तो प्रसन्नचित्त होकर भगवान का कीर्तन करने लगा। भगवान की ऐसी कृपा हुई कि उस समय ऐसी हवा चली कि होलिका की चादर उड़कर प्रह्लाद के ऊपर आ गई और होलिका जलने लगी और प्रह्लाद बच गया। आग बुझने पर प्रह्लाद ‘हरि’ का नाम लेता हुआ नीचे उतर आया। लोग खुशी से नाचने गाने लगे। उसी दिन की याद में आज भी होली का उत्सव मनाया जाता है।

अन्त में विष्णु भगवान ने नृसिंह का रूप धारण कर हिरण्यकश्यप का अन्त किया। प्रह्लाद ने भगवान से अपने पिता के उद्धार के लिए प्रार्थना की।

इस प्रकार मधुर संगीत और गीत के साथ फिल्म समाप्त हुई। फिल्म रंगीन थी और कुशल निर्देशक द्वारा निर्मित थी। संगीत के निर्देशक ने अपनी संगीतात्मक रचना द्वारा दर्शकों को मोहित ही कर दिया। इस फिल्म को देखकर सभी लोग अति प्रसन्न थे। इस फिल्म से हमें भगवान की भक्ति का उपदेश मिला। हमारे हृदय में श्रद्धा उत्पन्न हुई। सभी को यह फिल्म बहुत अच्छी लगी क्योंकि भक्ति भावना के साथ मनोरंजक भी थी। संगीत कर्णप्रिय था। निर्देशन अति उत्तम था और प्राकृतिक मनोहारी छटा हमारे नेत्रों को सुख दे रही थी। ऐसे चित्र देखने लायक होते हैं जो हमें सद्मार्ग पर चलने का उपदेश देते हैं।

(f) (i) मैं एक मध्यम परिवार से सम्बन्धित अंग्रेजी माध्यम विद्यालय का 12वीं कक्षा का छात्र हूँ और अभी मार्च में मेरी परीक्षा समाप्त हुई है। अपने परिवार में हम दो भाई-बहन और माता-पिता हैं। मेरी माता एक सुशिक्षित गृहणी हैं और मेरे पिता एक स्थानीय विद्यालय में अध्यापक हैं। बहन दसवीं कक्षा की छात्रा है और अपनी परीक्षा से मुक्त होकर बुआ के यहाँ चली गई है। मेरी बहन के ऊपर माताजी का नियन्त्रण और मार्गदर्शन रहा और मेरे ऊपर मेरे पिताजी का नियन्त्रण और मार्गदर्शन रहा।

मेरे पिताजी की शिक्षा-दीक्षा हिन्दी माध्यम विद्यालयों में हुई, लेकिन विज्ञान के अलावा अन्य विषयों का भी उन्हें अच्छा ज्ञान था। अंग्रेजी तो उनका प्रिय विषय रहा। उनका मानना था कि विज्ञान के साथ-साथ अंग्रेजी में भी दक्षता होना आवश्यक है। इसी विचार से उन्होंने मुझे अंग्रेजी माध्यम विद्यालय में नर्सरी से प्रवेश दिलवाया। विद्यालय पहुँचाने के लिए वह मुझे साइकिल पर बिठाकर ले जाते थे और दोपहर को मुझे लेने भी आते थे। उनके आने-जाने में विद्यालय में व्यवधान पड़ता था इसलिए उन्होंने मेरे लिए रिक्शा लगवा दिया। हालांकि इससे घर के खर्च में कटौती करनी पड़ी थी। मैं तो उस समय इस बात को समझता नहीं था। बाद में मुझे यह बात ज्ञात हुई तो मन को दुःख भी हुआ कि हमारे उत्थान के लिए हमारे पिताजी ने स्वयं कष्ट सहकर हमारी शिक्षा के लिए सहयोग किया। मेरे पिताजी ने पग-पग पर मेरी सहायता की और मेरा मार्गदर्शन किया। बिना उनके सहयोग के मेरा इतना पढ़ना सम्भव ही नहीं था।

जब मैं कक्षा 6 में आया तो मुझे पढ़ने में दिक्कत का सामना करना पड़ा। उस समय हमारी स्थिति ऐसी नहीं थी कि ट्यूशन का प्रबन्ध कर सकें। इसका हल यह निकाला कि पिताजी ने स्वयं मेरी किताबों से देखकर मेरे लिए नोट्स बनाए और मुझे पढ़ाया। मेरी मुसीबत कम हुई और मैं पास हो गया। सातवीं कक्षा से लेकर नौवीं कक्षा तक मेरे पिताजी मेरी पढ़ाई पर पूरा ध्यान देते थे। यहाँ तक कि उन्होंने मेरा पढ़ने और खेलने का टाइम-टेबिल बना दिया था। वह पूरा ध्यान रखते कि मैं उसका पालन कर रहा हूँ या नहीं। सन्तुलित भोजन के भी वह पक्षधर रहे। आज मैं इस बात को याद करता हूँ कि पिताजी का मार्गदर्शन कितना महत्वपूर्ण है।

दसवीं कक्षा में आकर मेरे पिताजी ने मुझे विज्ञान और गणित पर विशेष ध्यान देने को कहा क्योंकि वह चाहते थे कि मैं 12वीं कक्षा के बाद इंजीनियरिंग की पढ़ाई करूँ। 10वीं कक्षा में अच्छे अंकों से पास होने के बाद मैंने 11वीं कक्षा में पिताजी के निर्देशानुसार विज्ञान और गणित के विषय में ही प्रवेश लिया। हिन्दी के स्थान पर मैंने कम्प्यूटर विषय लिया। इसमें मेरे पिताजी का ही मार्गदर्शन रहा। इस कक्षा में भी आर्थिक परेशानियाँ आईं, लेकिन मैंने हिम्मत न हारी और कठिन परिश्रम करता रहा। आखिर वार्षिक परीक्षा आईं और मैंने अपने कठिन परिश्रम का परिचय देकर प्रश्न-पत्र अच्छी तरह हल किए। आशा है कि परीक्षा में अच्छे अंक प्राप्त करूँगा। अब मैंने बी. टेक की तैयारी शुरू कर दी है और प्रवेश परीक्षाओं में भाग लूँगा। आशा है कि मुझे कहीं न कहीं सफलता मिल जाएगी। पिताजी के मार्गदर्शन से ही आज मैं इस योग्य बना हूँ।

(ii) एक दिन मेरा पड़ोसी भागता हुआ मेरे पास आया। वह हाँफ रहा था जैसे किसी भयावह दृश्य को देखकर घबराहट में मेरे पास आया हो। मैं उसे अपने कमरे में लेकर आया और कुर्सी पर बैठाकर उसे पानी लाकर दिया। उसने पानी पीकर कुछ राहत पाई और बोलने में समर्थ हुआ। हम दोनों पड़ोसी परस्पर प्रेम करते हैं और एक दूसरे की सहायता के लिए सदैव तत्पर रहते हैं। मैंने उससे पूछा कि आखिर क्या बात है? जिसके कारण तुम इतना घबराए हुए हो। कुछ देर बाद उसने बोलने की हिम्मत दिखाई और कहा कि मित्र कल रात मुझे अपने कमरे की दीवार पर किसी औरत का चेहरा दिखाई दिया। मैं बहुत डर गया और तुरन्त ही मैंने बिजली जलाई। बिजली के जलते ही वह चेहरा गायब हो गया। फिर मैं बहुत देर तक दीवार की तरफ देखता रहा, लेकिन फिर वह चेहरा मुझे दिखाई नहीं दिया। मैंने सोचा कि यह मेरा भ्रम होगा। मैं सो गया, बिजली जलती रही।

आज मैं अपने कमरे में सोफा पर बैठा हुआ अखबार पढ़ रहा था। चाय पीते हुए मैं अपने देश की समस्याओं में उलझा हुआ था। टी. वी. मेरे कमरे में एक मेज पर रखा हुआ है, लेकिन मैं कम ही देखता हूँ। समाचार, एक दो सीरियल और धार्मिक कार्यक्रम ही देखता हूँ। आज सुबह 9 बजे मुझे वही औरत का चेहरा दीवार पर दिखाई दिया। इस समय वह चेहरा मुस्करा रहा था, लेकिन था निश्चल। मेरे भय और आश्चर्य का ठिकाना नहीं रहा। मैं डरता हुआ एकटक पाँच मिनट तक उसे देखता रहा। कुछ देर में ही वह चेहरा गायब हो गया। मुझे तुम्हारा स्मरण हो आया और मैं तुम्हारे पास आ गया। उसकी बातें सुनकर मैं भी दहल गया कि आखिर यह क्या बला है?

मैं और मेरा पड़ोसी तुरन्त उसके घर पहुँचे और उसके कमरे में ही बैठ गए। पड़ोसी ने नौकरानी से चाय नाश्ता लगाने को कहा। मैं उस दीवार की ओर ही देखता रहा, लेकिन मुझे चेहरे के कोई लक्षण परिलक्षित नहीं हुए। चाय पीकर भी मैं करीब एक घण्टे तक बैठा रहा एक अनजाने भय को हृदय में सँजोए हुए, परन्तु कोई घटना घटित नहीं हुई। मैं पड़ोसी से विदा लेकर अपने घर के दरवाजे तक पहुँचा ही था कि मेरा पड़ोसी भागता हुआ बदहवास-सा आया और बोला ‘मोहन फिर वही चेहरा मुझे दिखाई दिया’ मैं तुरन्त उसके साथ ही लौट पड़ा तो देखा कि वह चेहरा स्पष्ट रूप से मुझे भी दिखाई दिया। उसकी मुस्कान यह संकेत दे रही थी कि वह जो भी है, प्रसन्न है और कोई नुकसान नहीं पहुँचाना चाहती है। उससे डरना नहीं चाहिए, परन्तु ऐसी अप्रत्याशित घटनाएँ मन में डर का स्थान बना ही देती हैं। मुझे पूरा विश्वास हो गया कि इस घर पर किसी आत्मा का साया है। मैंने अपने पड़ोसी से विचार-विमर्श कर एक तांत्रिक को बुलाया। तांत्रिक के आने पर वह चेहरा उसके सामने प्रकट नहीं हुआ। उसने घर में हवन किया और मंत्रों से सम्पूर्ण घर को कील दिया। उसके बाद आज तक मेरे पड़ोसी को वह चेहरा दिखाई नहीं दिया।

Question 2.
Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow : –
निम्नलिखित अवतरण को पढ़कर, अन्त में दिये गये प्रश्नों के संक्षिप्त उत्तर लिखिए-

पहला सुख निरोगी काया अर्थात् सबसे बड़ा सुख स्वस्थ शरीर है। अस्वस्थ व्यक्ति न अपना भला कर सकता है, न घर का, न समाज का और न ही देश का।

प्राचीनकाल से ही उत्तम स्वास्थ्य के लिए व्यायाम के महत्व को पहचाना गया है। बड़े-बड़े मनीषियों ने व्यायाम को उत्तम स्वास्थ्य का आधार बताया है।

धर्म, अर्थ, काम, मोक्ष इन चारों का मूल आधार स्वास्थ्य है। जहाँ तक इस सफलता की बात करें तो मानव-जीवन की सफलता भी इसी सूत्र में छिपी है।

बुद्धिमत्तापूर्ण कार्य तथा सफलता के लिए परिश्रम भी स्वस्थ शरीर से ही सम्भव होता है। अतः स्वस्थ मस्तिष्क तथा स्वस्थ बुद्धि के लिए हमें शरीर को स्वस्थ रखना चाहिए।

स्वास्थ्य और सफलता का गहरा नाता है। सफलता के लिए व्यक्ति को परिश्रम करना आवश्यक है और अस्वस्थ व्यक्ति परिश्रम नहीं कर सकता। स्वस्थ मस्तिष्क से ही मनुष्य में सोचने -विचारने की शक्ति आती है, वह अपना हानि-लाभ सोच सकता है। जिस देश के व्यक्ति कमजोर व अस्वस्थ होंगे वह देश कभी उन्नत नहीं हो सकता। एक विद्यार्थी तभी श्रेष्ठ विद्यार्थी होगा जब वह स्वस्थ होगा। चाहे विद्यार्थी हो या अध्यापक, व्यापारी हो या वकील, कर्मचारी हो या शासक, नौकर हो या स्वामी, प्रत्येक को अपने कार्य में सफलता प्राप्त करने के लिए स्वस्थ होना आवश्यक है।

इसं स्वास्थ्य की रक्षा के लिए मनीषियों ने, वैद्यों-डॉक्टरों ने तथा योगी-महात्माओं ने अनेक साधन बताए हैं– जिसमें शुद्ध वायु, प्रातः भ्रमण, संयमित जीवन, सच्चरित्रता, निश्चिन्तता, सन्तुलित भोजन, गहरी नींद तथा व्यायाम प्रमुख है। इनमें भी व्यायाम ही उत्तम स्वास्थ्य की मूल जड़ है। आलस्य रूपी महारिपु से छुटकारा पाने के लिए भी व्यायाम को अपनाना आवश्यक है। व्यायाम व्यक्ति को चुस्त-दुरुस्त रखता है। व्यायाम शारीरिक व बौद्धिक दो प्रकार का होता है। शारीरिक व्यायाम के लिए दण्ड-बैठक, खुली हवा में दौड़ लगाना, तैरना, घुड़सवारी करना, कुश्ती लड़ना तथा विभिन्न प्रकार के खेल, जैसे- हॉकी, कबड्डी, रस्साकसी, बैडमिण्टन आदि खेले जा सकते हैं। बौद्धिक व्यायाम के अन्तर्गत शब्द पहेलियाँ, बुद्धिपरीक्षण के प्रश्न तथा शतरंज आदि खेल आते हैं।

स्वास्थ्य के प्रति जागरूक होने के कारण ही आज व्यक्ति फिर योग की ओर मुड़ रहे हैं। योगासनों का महत्व बढ़ता जा रहा है। इन योगासनों के द्वारा शरीर की माँसपेशियाँ पुष्ट होती हैं। साथ ही मनुष्य को एकाग्रचित्तता की शक्ति प्राप्त होती है। व्यायाम करने व योगासनों से मनुष्य जल्दी बूढ़ा नहीं होता। उसकी पाचन क्रिया ठीक रहती है, रक्त-संचार नियमित होता है जिससे मस्तिष्क स्वस्थ रहता है। मनुष्य में आत्मविश्वास, आत्मनिर्भरता जैसे गुणों का समावेश होता है जो मनुष्य की सफलता की कुंजी है।

जो सुखों का उपभोग करना चाहता है तथा जीवन में सफलता रूपी कुंजी पाना चाहता है उसे स्वास्थ्य नियमों का पालन करना चाहिए।

Questions.
(a) ‘पहला सुख निरोगी काया’ से आप क्या समझते हैं? स्वास्थ्य नियमों का पालन करने से क्या लाभ होता है? [4]
(b) स्वास्थ्य और सफलता का आपस में गहरा नाता किस प्रकार है? [4]
(c) स्वास्थ्य रक्षा के लिए किसने और क्या साधन बताए? [4]
(d) शारीरिक व बौद्धिक व्यायाम से आप क्या समझते हैं? ये किस प्रकार किये जाते हैं?
(e) योग साधनों का महत्व क्यों बढ़ रहा है तथा इस योग साधना के क्या लाभ हैं? [4]
Answer:
(a) ‘पहला सुख निरोगी काया’ से तात्पर्य है मनुष्य शरीर का। स्वस्थ और निरोगी होना। यदि शरीर में कोई रोग नहीं है और उसे शुद्ध और पौष्टिक आहार मिल रहा है तो वह स्वस्थ रहेगा। स्वस्थ जीवन ही संसार में पहला सुख बताया गया है। निरोगी व्यक्ति ही प्रसन्न रहता है और स्फूर्तिपूर्वक अपना काम कर सकता है। स्वस्थ व्यक्ति ही अपना, घर का, समाज का और देश का भला कर सकता है। धर्म, अर्थ, काम, मोक्ष इन चारों का मूल आधार स्वास्थ्य ही है। मानव जीवन की सफलता भी इसी सूत्र में सन्निहित है। श्रेष्ठ बुद्धिमत्तापूर्ण कार्य तथा सफलता के लिए परिश्रम भी स्वस्थ शरीर से ही सम्भव है। अतः स्वस्थ मस्तिष्क तथा स्वस्थ बुद्धि के लिए हमें शरीर को स्वस्थ रखना चाहिए।

(b) स्वास्थ्य और सफलता का गहरा रिश्ता है। कार्य की सफलता के लिए मनुष्य को परिश्रम करना आवश्यक है, जबकि अस्वस्थ व्यक्ति परिश्रम नहीं कर सकता। स्वस्थ मस्तिष्क ही मनुष्य में सोचने-विचारने की शक्ति और हानि-लाभ का विचार देता है। जिस देश के नागरिक कमजोर और अस्वस्थ होंगे, वह देश कभी उन्नति नहीं कर सकता। श्रेष्ठ विद्यार्थी के लिए उसका स्वस्थ होना आवश्यक है। व्यक्ति के कार्य का कोई भी क्षेत्र हो, उसे उसके कार्य में सफलता पाने के लिए उसका स्वस्थ होना आवश्यक है।

(c) स्वास्थ्य की रक्षा के लिए मनीषियों ने, वैद्य-डॉक्टरों ने तथा योगी-महात्माओं ने अनेक साधन बताए हैं- जैसे शुद्ध वायु, प्रातः कालीन भ्रमण, संयमित जीवन, सच्चरित्र होना, निश्चिन्तता, सन्तुलित भोजन, गहरी नींद तथा व्यायाम। इनमें से व्यायाम ही उत्तम स्वास्थ्य की संजीवनी है। आलस्य शरीर का महान् शत्रु है। इससे छुटकारा पाने के लिए व्यायाम करना अत्यन्त आवश्यक है। व्यायाम व्यक्ति को चुस्त-दुरुस्त और प्रसन्नचित्त रखता है।

(d) शारीरिक व्यायाम से शरीर स्वस्थ रहता है और बौद्धिक व्यायाम से मस्तिष्क की बुद्धि विकसित और तीव्र होती है। शारीरिक व्यायाम के लिए दण्ड-बैठक, कुश्ती लड़ना, खुली हवा में दौड़ना, साइकिल चलाना, तैरना, घुड़सवारी करना तथा विभिन्न प्रकार के खेल, जैसे – हॉकी, कबड्डी, रस्साकसी, बैडमिण्टन, बालीबॉल आदि खेले जाते हैं। बौद्धिक व्यायाम के अन्तर्गत शब्द पहेलियाँ, बुद्धि परीक्षण के प्रश्न तथा शतरंज, लूडो आदि खेल आते हैं।

(e) स्वास्थ्य के प्रति जागरूक होने के लिए आज व्यक्ति फिर योग की ओर अग्रसर हो रहे हैं। योगासनों का महत्व बढ़ता जा रहा है। योगासनों के द्वारा शरीर की माँसपेशियाँ पुष्ट होती हैं तथा मनुष्य को एकाग्रता की शक्ति प्राप्त होती है। व्यायाम करने व योगासन करने से मनुष्य का बुढ़ापा जल्दी नहीं आता। उसकी पाचन क्रिया ठीक रहती है और रक्त संचार नियमित रहता है जिससे मस्तिष्क भी स्वस्थ रहता है। मनुष्य में आत्मविश्वास, आत्मनिर्भरता जैसे गुणों का समावेश होता है जो उसकी सफलता की कुंजी है।

Question 3.
(a) Correct the following sentences : [5]

निम्नलिखित वाक्यों को शुद्ध करके लिखिए:
(i) जो काम करो वह पूरा जरूर करो।
(ii) पिता का पुत्र में विश्वास है।
(iii) उसे मृत्युदण्ड की सजा मिली है।
(iv) वह गुणवान महिला है।
(v) सभी कार्यालय में उपस्थिति कम है।

(b) Use the following idioms in sentences of your own to illustrate their meaning : [5]
निम्नलिखित मुहावरों का अर्थ स्पष्ट करने के लिए उनका वाक्यों में प्रयोग कीजिए-
(i) फूला न समाना।
(ii) कान भरना।
(iii) पानी में आग लगाना।
(iv) श्री गणेश करना।
(v) लोहे के चने चबाना।
Answer:
(a) (i) जो काम करो उसे पूरा जरूर करो।
(ii) पिता को पुत्र पर विश्वास है।
(iii) उसे मृत्युदण्ड मिला।
(iv) वह गुणवती महिला है।
(v) सभी कार्यालयों में उपस्थिति कम है।

(b) (i) फूला न समाना (बहुत खुश होना)– पी. सी. एस. की परीक्षा में सफल होने पर अभय फूला न समाया।
(ii) कान भरना (भड़काना)- जिस व्यक्ति की आदत दूसरों के कान भरने की होती है वह समाज में अच्छा नहीं माना जाता।
(iii) पानी में आग लगाना (असम्भव को सम्भव करना)– मोहन और सोहन के परिवारों में दस साल से दुश्मनी चली आ रही है। लोग जानते हैं कि उनमें सुलह कराना पानी में आग लगाने के समान है।
(iv) श्री गणेश करना (शुरुआत करना)- हमारे पड़ोसी शिवलाल जी ने अपने व्यवसाय का श्री गणेश विशेष पूजापाठ के साथ कराया।
(v) लोहे के चने चबाना (कठिनाई होना)- देश में फैले भ्रष्टाचार को समाप्त करना एक तरह से लोहे के चने चबाने के समान है।

Section B is not given due to change in Present Syllabus.

ISC Class 12 Hindi Previous Year Question Papers

ISC Political Science Previous Year Question Paper 2015 Solved for Class 12

Maximum Marks: 80
Time allowed: Three hours

• Candidates are allowed additional 15 minutes for only reading the paper. They must NOT start writing during this time.
• Answer Question 1 (Compulsory) from Part I and five questions from Part II, choosing two questions from Section A, two questions from Section B and one question from either Section A or Section B.
• The intended marks for questions or parts of questions are given in brackets [ ].

Part—I
(Compulsory)

Question 1. .
Answer briefly each of the questions (i) to (xv): [15 x 2]
(i) State Aristotle’s Theory of Cyclic Change.
(ii) Give an example of a Federal State and a Quasi Federal State.
(iii) Mention any two merits of a Parliamentary System of Government.
(iv) State any two conventions of the written constitution of the United States of America.
(v) Define cumulative vote system.
(vi) Explain the meaning of Psychological Basis for the organization of political parties f*
(vii) Flow has the judicial review undermined the legislature ?
(viii) What is the tenure of the President of USA ? How many terms can the US President serve?
(ix) Name the two conventions that are followed
while appointing the British Prime Minister.
(x) Explain the statement ‘American President can pigeon hole any bill’.
(xi) Why is the judiciary in USA called the two tier system ?
(xii) State what is meant by open trial system.
(xiii) Explain the meaning of Jury System.
(xiv) What is casteism ?
(xv) State the importance of reforms in the education system to check communalism under strengthening Indian Democracy.
Answer:
(ii) Federal state is one that brings together a number of different political communities with a common government for common purposes, and separate “state” or “provincial” or “cantonal” governments for the specific needs of each community. USA is an example of Federal State. Quasi federal state on the other hand refers to a union of states under a central government; rather ‘ than the individual governments of the separate states. India is by constitution a federal republic, but in reality functions as a quasi-federal state.

(iii) The two merits of a parliamentary system of government are as follows :

• It is faster and easier to pass legislation.
• Power is more divided and more evenly spread out in the power structure of parlia mentarianism.

(iv) Senatorial courtesy and Judicial review are the two written conventions of constitution of USA.

(v) This method of minority representation facilitates creation of multi-member constituencies and each voter is given as many votes as is the number of representatives which are to be elected, and each voter has the freedom either to give all his votes to any one candidate or to distribute his votes among as many candidates as he wishes. For example, if from a constituency four representatives are to be elected, each voter gets four votes. Each voter can give all his four votes either to one candidate or to two or three or four candidates of his choice. Now the voters belonging to a minority community can get their candidates elected by accumulating all their votes behind their candidate/candidates. In this way, it is regarded as a method of minority representation.

(vii) The constitution becomes a tool in the hands of the judiciary. Judiciary gets the chance to give meaning to laws passed by the representatives of the people.

Judicial Review has unduly enhanced the prestige of the judiciary vis-a-vis the legislature. It behaves like a third cahmber of legislature with only a negative power of rejecting the laws.

Judicial Review creates complications because of the fact that on several occasions a law is declared ultra vires by the court several years after its enactment by the legislature and enforcement by the executive.

(viii) The President of USA is elected for a term of 4 years. No President may serve more than two four year terms. He or she can serve additionally for a maximum of two years in case he or she took over as President under some other President’s term.

(x) This means the President of America has the right to not assign or hear debate on the bill. If he feels that a bill is not appropriate for discussion he may decide not to hear the same as in case he feels that the bill is not as per the letter and spirit of the constitution.

(xi) While there are similar premises of justice for all citizens, there is reasonable immunity for high level government officials who commit felonies like obstruction of justice, . eavesdropping etc. This is referred as the two-tier system.

(xiii) It is a legal system for determining the facts at issue in a law suit. The system consists of twelve people who sit in criminal and civil events to make decisions on matters of facts. In England there is an approximate 800 year history of the jury system.

(xiv) Casteism is the belief in, and adherence to the caste system. It involves separation on the basis of caste. For example, in India the Caste System constituted four major categories namely Brahmins, Khastriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. While Brahmins were engaged in spiritual work, Khastriyas were into warfare and Vaishyas did business. Sudras were required to menial work.

(xv) Education system reforms can inculcate learning on diversity of culture. This would allow appreciation of the differences among different groups of people and higher levels of tolerance, thus, strengthening Indian Democracy.

Part—II
Section—A
Answer two questions

Question 2.
(a) C.F. Strong has suggested a modern classification of States, Explain the same, with the help of examples. [8]
(b) Discuss any six merits under Indian Constitution of liberal democracy. [6]
Answer:
(b) The six merits under Indian Constitution of liberal democracy are as follows :
It offers the right to vote to all the adult citizens : In a democratic country all the citizens above 18 years can elect their representatives through electoral process. They can also participate in decision-making process on various issues related to politics, economy and society. Even the President of the country who is responsible for taking the major decisions is also indirectly elected by the people.

It offers the opportunity to bring change : The elected officials can’t stay in power for a long time. In case, the perfor-mance of the officials is not satisfactory, people can bring about a change by not supporting them.

It offers opportunity for the representation to people : The elected leaders are people’s representative. People have the right to elect the candidate whom they consider as capable.

It promotes participation of the people : A democratic government allows people to participate in the decision-making process. Thus, it helps in inculcating a sense of belongingness to the people. As the citizens have freedom to vote, they can consider themselves as a significant part of the society. Moreover, it also enables the citizens to make a difference in the society they are living through the electoral process.

It helps in promoting equality : All the citizens are considered equal in front of law and every citizen above 18 years has a right to vote regardless of gender, caste or creed.

It enables people to give voice to their issues : People have freedom to carry rallies to hold assemblies to raise their issues. In case the citizens are not happy with the working of the government or against some policy of the government can express their views openly against it.

Question 3.
(a) Distinguish between the unitary form of government and the federal form of government. [8]
(b) Discuss any six merits of a Presidential form of Government. [6]
Answer:
(a) A unitary form of government is one wherein all the powers are concentrated in the hands of the central government. The central government delegates authority to local units which are created by it. These local units are referred as local governments. Countries like England, France, and Japan have Unitary Governments. Unitary Governments are suitable for smaller countries.

K. C. Where describes the federal principle as the method of divided power so that the general and regional governments are each within a sphere co-ordinate and independent.

Federalism is the theory of federal political order, wherein final authority is divided between sub-units and a center. Unlike a unitary state, sovereignty is constitutionally split at two tiers. Unlike Unitary form, in the Federal system the Constitution has absolute supremacy. There is also devolution of powers between the central government and state governments. Further an independent judiciary is a key feature of Federalism. The Indian system is relatively federal in nature with states enjoying reasonable powers on a number of subjects like law and order. The Judiciary in India too is independent and often gives verdicts which go against the governments.

(b) Merits of Presidential Form of Government :
It guarantees stable government : In a Presidential form of government, the govern¬ment becomes stable, because the President is elected for a fixed tenure and he cannot be removed from his office through a vote of no¬confidence. He can only be removed from his office through the process of impeachment, in case he or she violates the constitution.

Such system is most suitable for emergencies : In a Presidential form of government, real powers of the government rest with the President. During a War or any other emergency, after consulting his or her administrators, the President can take a number of decisions independently. In the case of US, during war and emergency, the Congress also delegates its numerous powers to the President. Thus President in the US can be authoritative while dealing
with eme-gencies as during the World Wars.

Efficiency in administration : As the President is empowered to appoint adminis-trative heads on the basis of ability rather than political affiliation they are responsible to the President and not to the parliament. This ensures administrative efficiency.

Less influence of political parties : Compared to the Parliamentary government there is less influence of political parties in this system. This ensures less dependence on the Parliament for execution of functions.

Strong Executive : Executive is independent of day-to-day interference of legislature, hence forms a stronger organ of functioning.

Expert Ministers : A Presidential form of government is government by professionals and experts.

Question 4.
(a) The distinction between a written and unwritten constitution is a false one. Discuss this statement. [8]
(b) Explain any three merits and any three demerits of a rigid constitution. [6]
Answer:
(a) (i) The essential features of a written constitution and an unwritten constitution are as follows:
(1) Written Constitution:

• A written constitution means a constituion written in the form of a book or a series of documents combined in the form of a book.
• It provides for a definite design of Government institutions, their organisations, powers, functions and inter-relationships.
• It is consciously planned and enacted constitution which is formulated and adopted by a constituent assembly or a council or convention or a legislature.

(2) Unwritten Constitution:

• An unwritten constitution means a constitution is not in the written form of a book and it is not drafted or enacted by a constituent assembly.
• The Government is organised and it functions in accordance with the several well settled laws and several unwritten conventions.
• The people know their constitution and they accept and obey it, but they do not possess it in the written form.

(ii) Constitutions are classified as written and unwritten. Such a classification is, however, of little practical importance. As Wheare observes, “we cannot agree that there is any country, least of all, the United Kingdom, which has a system of government embodied solely in written rules or solely in unwritten rules.” The distinction between written and unwritten constitution is illusory. The bulk of the rules regulating the fundamental political institutions of a country may be written down in a document or documents. The written constitutions are framed by a representative body called, Constituent Assembly. For example, the USA and India have a written constitutional document. On the other hand, the constitution of a country is said to be unwritten, when most of the rules governing its fundamental political institutions are found in customs, usages and conventions, as is the case in U.K.

It follows therefore, that constitutions can hardly be classified into written and unwritten types in absolute term. The distinction is really a superfluous one.

(b) Merits of Rigid Constitution :

• The ruling class cannot misuse the constitution for its vested interest.
• Rigidity provides legitimacy to the constitution. It earns the respect of all as it cannot be easily abused for vested motives.
• A rigid constitution ensures protection of the fundamental rights of citizens.

Demerits of Rigid Constitution :

• As the amendment procedure of a rigid constitution is very difficult, it can cause problems for the country.
• A rigid constitution is likely to fail to cope with changing times and environment. Thus the country may fail to keep pace with social, political and economic changes.
• When people feel that a rigid constitution comes in the way of the national legislature towards managing disasters or ensuring equality etc. They are likely to approach the judiciary to intervene. This naturally exposes the constitution to judicial intervention.

Section—B
Answer three questions

Question 5.
(a) Explain how the system of checks and balances makes the theory of separation of powers workable in the United States. [8]
(b) Why is Universal Adult Franchise the most accepted form of Representation in a modern state ? [6]
Answer 5.
(b) The popularity of the Adult Franchise is linked to certain clear benefits :
It is based on political equality : The system is truly in alignment with democratic values as it gives political equality to all the citizens irrespective of their caste, creed, sex, religion, wealth etc.

Promotes national unity : Adult franchise spreads the message that all the citizens are equal and no one is more privileged. This naturally promotes the cause of national unity.

Political awakening : The system arouses thoughts of political awakening among all the citizens. They are in a position to safeguard their rights and freedoms. This inculcates a sense of responsibility among them.

Question 6.
(a) What is meant by the sovereignty of the British Parliament ? What are its limitations ? [8]
(b) Make a comparative study of US House of Representatives and the British House of Commons. [6]

Question 7.
(a) Explain the reasons why the power of the Executive has grown in recent years. [8]
(b) State the main difference between the political executive and the permanent executive. [6]
Answer 7.
(a) Factors responsible for the increase in the power the executive :

The Rise of the Welfare State : In the 19th century, the state used to be a police state having the responsibility of performing only the protection functions for the people. It has little role to play towards the promotion of social economic and cultural interests of the people. However, in the 20th century, the state got transformed into a welfare state responsible for performing social economic development functions along with the traditional protection functions. A big increase took place in the functions of the state and it came to be an administrative welfare state. Naturally, it led to a big increase in the functions of the executive. In the 21st century, the era of globalization has opened and this has given a new push to the functions of the executive.

System of Delegated Legislation : When the legislature delegates its law-making powers to the executive and the latter makes laws on the basis of the delegated powers, the system is called Delegated Legislation. Several factors increased pressure of work, lack of expert and technical knowledge, the technical nature of modem law-making, the paucity of time and the rise of welfare administration always compel a modem legislature to delegate its law-making powers to the executive. This has considerably strengthened the position of executive. At times, the legislature finds it essential even to delegate abnormal law-making powers to the executive. Ever- increasing scope of delegated legislation has been responsible for a big increase in the powers of the executive.

System of Administrative Justice : A modem executive has come to acquire and perform several quasi-judicial functions for meeting the new needs resulting from the rise of a complex industrial society. Cases involving grant of permits, licenses, quotas and tax-cases are today being adjudicated by the executive. It has increased the powers of the executive in a big way.

Important Functions of Executive : In contemporary times, the most important functions of the government have come to be conduct of international relations, war and peace functions, international trade, import and export regime, international finance, security of the state, treaty-making, fighting the menace of terrorism, fiscal management and the like. All these functions are the functions of the executive. Naturally therefore, the role and importance of the executive has registered a big growth in contemporary times.

Planning Functions : The executive has the responsibility to make social economic development plans, to get these carried through in the legislature and then to implement these in actual practice. The executive prepares and implements developmental programmes and leads the process of social economic development. This has been a source of big increase is the powers of the executive.

Decline in the Role of the Legislature : The legislature in every state has virtually suffered a decline. It has become a talking shop. Intense party politics which characterizes its functioning has adversely affected its working. Dependence upon the system of delegated legislature has further declined the role of legislature. The loss of legislature has been a gain of the executive.

The availability of the Services of Civil Servants : One part of the executive consists of the expert, trained and a professional class of civil servants. The civil servants are a source of expertise and professionalism for the executive. The political executive always utilizes their services as the civil servants work under the political-leadership of the political executive makes the executive an efficient and strong organ of the state. The executive, as such, has come to be in a position to use its powers and perform its functions in a vigorous way. This has been a source of increase in its powers.

Executive’s Control over Military and Police : The defense of the security of the state against foreign aggressions and threats has been a key function of the executive. Likewise, the executive has the responsibility to maintain law and order in the country. For this it has at its disposal the services of military, police and para-military forces. It has indeed been a source of strength for the executive.

The power to meet emergencies and the power to provide relief to the people : It is the prime responsibility of the executive to deal with emergencies and natural calamities. The executive provides relief to the victims of all natural and man-made calamities. This has been a factor in the increase in the role and importance of the executive. Due to all these factors the power of the executive has grown and is still growing. Increased power and role of the executive is a reality of our times. It appears to be a natural phenomenon, in fact a natural necessity of a complex industrial society.

It is also a necessary condition for the development of a developing country. Consequently, the power of executive has grown in all countries both developed and developing, Western as well as Eastern, Asian, African, European, Latin American and in fact in all parts of the world without any exception.

(b) The differences between the political executive and the permanent executive :
Permanent executives are also known as “non-elected” executives whereas Political executives are “non-permanent” elected executives. While the former are not directly answerable to the people, the latter are accountable to the citizens who elected them.

Permanent executives usually have a very long term i.e., they do not leave office until and unless they retire, but political executives leave office as soon as their short term gets over.

Permanent executives are necessarily experts in their areas but political executives may or may not be experts in their areas.

Permanent executives get their designation and office through standard selection procedures whereas political executives get elected.

Question 8.
(a) Discuss the functions of the Judiciary. [8]
(b) Discuss the original and appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of India. [6]
Answer:
(a) Some of the functions of the Judiciary are as follows:
Judicial Functions : When a dispute is brought before a court, it is the responsibility of the court to ‘determine the facts’ involved. The court studies the facts presented through evidence by the contesting parties. The Judiciary takes up the role of the interpreter of the laws.

Law-making Functions : The judiciary while interpreting the existing laws also performs the role of lawmaker. Infact ‘judge- made’ laws are common to all systems of jurisprudence. Such occasions may arise when the provisions of the existing laws may be ambiguous, or sometimes two or more laws appear to be in conflict. Herein the judiciary plays an important role in determining what the law is and when two laws apparently conflict, which one shall prevail.

Guardianship of the Constitution : In federal States like India and the USA the judiciary is the guardian of the Constitution. In federal States conflict in jurisdiction and authority is common, as there are multiple law making and executive authorities. Under circumstances, the judiciary plays the role of an umpire and regulates the legal actions of the States and Central governments.

Advisory Jurisdiction : Some national judiciaries possess advisory jurisdiction. For instance, the President of India may seek the advice of the Supreme Court of India on any proposed legislation.

(b) Appellate Jurisdiction of Supreme Court : The Supreme Court of India has Original, Appellate and Advisory Jurisdiction. Its exclusive original Jurisdiction extends to any dispute between the Government of India and one or more States of the Indian Union or between one or more States. Article 32 of the Constitution grants an extensive original jurisdiction to the Supreme Court in regard to enforcement of Fundamental Rights. It is empowered to issue directions, orders or writs including writs in the nature of habeas corpus to enforce them. The Supreme Court may direct transfer of any civil or criminal case from one State High Court to another State High Court or from a lower Court to a higher Court.

The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court can be invoked in respect of any judgement, decree or final order of a High Court for both civil and criminal cases, involving substantial questions of law as to the interpretation of the Constitution. Appeals also lie to the Supreme Court in civil matters if the High Court concerned certifies: (a) that the case involves a substantial question of law of general importance, and (b) that, in the opinion of the High Court, the said question needs to be decided by the Supreme Court.

In criminal cases, an appeal lies to the Supreme Court if the High Court (a) has on appeal reversed an order of acquittal of an accused person and sentenced him to death or life imprisonment or for a period of not less than 10 years, or (b) has withdrawn for trial before itself any case from any lower Court to its authority and has in such trial convicted the accused and sentenced him to death or to imprisonment for life or for a period of not less than 10 years, or (c) certified that the case is fit for appeal to the Supreme Court.

Parliament is also authorized to confer on the Supreme Court any further powers to entertain appeals from any judgement, final order or sentence in a criminal proceeding of a High Court.

Question 9.
(a) State any two consequences of regional imbalances. Suggest six steps for removing regional imbalances. [8]
(b) Give any six ways to combat Separatism. [6]

ISC Class 12 Political Science Previous Year Question Papers

ISC Economics Previous Year Question Paper 2019 Solved for Class 12

Maximum Marks: 80
Time allowed: 3 hours

• Candidates are allowed additional 15 minutes for only reading the paper.
• They must NOT start writing during this time.
• Answer Question 1 (Compulsory) from Part I and five questions from Part II.
• The intended marks for questions or parts of questions are given in brackets [ ].

Part – I (20 Marks)
Answer all questions.

Question 1.
Answer briefly each of the following questions (i) to (x). [10 × 2]
(i) What is meant by product differentiation in monopolistic competition?
(ii) Explain an indifference map, with the help of a diagram.
(iii) Give two examples of each of the following:
(a) Revenue receipts of the government.
(b) Revenue expenditure of the government.
(iv) With the help of a diagram, state the behaviour of MP when:
(a) TP of the variable factor reaches a maximum.
(b) TP of the variable factor falls.
(v) What is meant by High Powered Money?
(vi) Distinguish between depreciation and devaluation.
(vii) Explain any two precautions to be taken while calculating national income by income method.
(viii) Differentiate between accounting cost and opportunity cost.
(ix) With the help of diagrams, show when the elasticity of supply is:
(a) greater than one
(b) equal to one
(x) What is meant by investment multiplier?
Answer:
(i) Product differentiation is a unique feature of monopolistic competition. Products of different firms are similar in nature but are differentiated in terms of brand name, shape, size, colour etc. For example, different brands of toothpaste vary on the basis of colour, taste, packaging etc. The essence of product differentiation is to create an image in the minds of buyer that the product sold by one seller is different from the product sold by another seller. It allows producers to determine the price policy for their goods independently.

(ii) An indifference map represents several indifference curves that can occur as a change in quantity or the type of good consumed changes the consumption pattern for consumers. A consumer receives same level of utility from different combination of goods that lie on the same indifference curve. An indifference curve that is further away from the origin indicates higher consumption and higher utility. An illustration of an indifference map is shown below:

(iii) (a) The revenue receipts of the government include taxes and the amount received from the sale of equity.
(b) The revenue expenditures of the government include interest payments and expenditure on subsidies.

(iv) (a) When TP of a variable factor reaches the maximum, the MP of the variable factor becomes zero. It is shown in the diagram below. When TP of a variable factor becomes maximum at point A, the MP of the variable factor touches the X-axis at point B.

(b) When TP of a variable factor falls, the MP of the variable factors becomes negative and the negative returns to scale set in. The situation is shown in the diagram below. The TP falls between point A and A’, and MP becomes negative between point B and B’.

(v) High powered money refers to the total monetary liability of the authorities (RBI and Central Government in India) of the country. It consists of currency (notes and coins in circulation and cash reserve of a commercial bank) and deposits held by the government of India and commercial banks with RBI. These are the claims which general public, Government or banks have on RBI and hence are considered as a liability of RBI.
Thus H = C + R + OD
where H = High powered money
C = Currency held by the Public
R = Government and bank deposits with RBI.
OD = Other deposits.

(vi) The difference between depreciation and devaluation is as follows:

Depreciation	Devaluation
1. Depreciation of currency occurs when the value of currency reduces in terms of another currency due to the market forces of demand and supply in the global market.	1. Devaluation of currency occurs when the government of a country reduces the value of its currency in terms of another currency by increasing the supply of domestic currency in the global market.
2. Depreciation of currency happens under the floating exchange rate system.	2. Devaluation of currency happens under the fixed exchange rate system.

(vii) Two precautions to be taken while calculating national income by income method are as follows:
(a) Transfer incomes such as pension and unemployment remittances should not be considered as income and should not be included in the calculation of national income. Only income earned by providing productive services must be included in the calculation of national income.
(b) The sale and purchase of second-hand goods should not be included in the calculation of national income by income method. This is because such goods are not a part of production in the current year. However, the commission earned through a trade of such goods is included in national income as the commission is income earned through productive services rendered in the current year.

(viii) The difference between accounting cost and opportunity cost is as follows:

Accounting Cost	Opportunity Cost
1. Accounting costs refer to the costs recorded in the books of account of a firm. These are the expenditures incurred by a firm in the production process. For example, if a firm manufactures tables, the cost of labour used in the production of the table is accounting cost.	1. Opportunity cost refers to the value of the next best alternative selected over another. For example, the producer can use the building for either manufacturing tables or producing gloves. The producer decides to use the building for manufacturing tables, then the income that the producer could have earned from using the building by producing gloves is the opportunity cost of producing tables.
2. Accounting costs are explicit costs.	2. Opportunity cost is the sum of explicit cost and implicit costs.

(ix) (a) When the elasticity of supply is greater than one, the percentage change in quantity supplied is greater than the percentage change in price.


(b) When the elasticity of supply is equal to one, the percentage change in quantity supplied is equal to the percentage change in price.

(x) An investment multiplier refers to the fact that an increase in private or public investment expenditure leads to a more than proportionate increase in the level of national output. The investment multiplier is calculated as the ratio of change in income to the change in investment. Investment multiplier = ∆Y/∆I
where ∆Y = change in income
∆I = change in investment.

Part – II (60 Marks)
Answer any five questions.

Question 2.
(a) How does an increase in income affect the demand for the following: [3]
(i) A normal good
(ii) An inferior good
(b) Discuss any three reasons for the leftward shift of a supply curve. [3]
(c) Explain how a consumer attains equilibrium using indifference curve analysis. [6]
Answer:
(a) (i) An increase in. income leads to a higher demand for a normal good. This is because there is a positive relationship between the income of a consumer and the quantity demanded of a normal good. Therefore, an increase in income will lead to a rightward shift in the demand curve of a normal good.

The original demand curve is depicted as D. However, when the income of the consumer increases, the quantity demanded of normal good increases and the demand curve shifts to D’. This implies that now a consumer will demand more of a commodity even at the same price.

(ii) An increase in income leads to lower demand for an inferior good. This is because there is a negative relation between the income of a consumer and the quantity demanded of an inferior good. Therefore, an increase in income will lead to a leftward shift of the demand curve of the inferior good.

The original demand curve is depicted as D. However, when the income of the consumer increases, the quantity demanded of inferior good decreases and the demand curve shifts to D’. This implies that consumer demand less of the commodity at the same price.

(b) Three reasons that can lead to a leftward shift of a supply curve are as follows:
(i) The prices of related goods: Sometimes producers produce more than one good. Suppose a producer produces butter. If the price of butter decreases, the supply of butter and buttermilk will decrease. This is because buttermilk is made from butter. Therefore, a decrease in price of butter will lead to a lower supply of buttermilk, which is depicted by a leftward shift of the supply curve of buttermilk.

(ii) The prices of factors of production: If the cost of any of the factors of production such as land, labour, capital or entrepreneurship rises, the cost of producing a good also rises. As a result, the supply of the good decreases. Thus, the supply curve of the goodwill shift to the left.

(iii) Use of obsolete technology: The use of obsolete technology increases the time, effort and labour needed to produce a good. Thus, the production cost may increase which can lower the supply of the good. As a result, the supply curve shifts to the left.

(c) According to the indifference curve analysis, consumer equilibrium can be attained under two conditions.
(i) MRS_XY = P_X/P_Y
(ii) MRS is continuously diminishing
If MRS_XY > P_X/P_Y, the consumer is willing to pay more for good X than the market price of good X. Thus, the consumer buys a higher amount of good X, and the MRS diminishes till it becomes equal to the ratio of price of good X and price of good Y. At this point, equilibrium is attained.

If MRS_XY < P_X/P_Y, the consumer is willing to pay less for good X than the market price of good X. Thus, the consumer buys a lesser amount of good X, and the MRS increases till it becomes equal to the ratio of price of good X and price of good Y. At this point, equilibrium is attained.

The second condition to attain consumer equilibrium is that the MRS must be diminishing at an equilibrium point. This implies that at the point of equilibrium IC is convex to the origin.
Let us see the diagram given below:

The indifference map depicts three indifference curves titled IC₁, IC₂ and IC₃ respectively. Given the budget constraint of the consumer, the highest indifference curve that a consumer can reach is IC₂. The budget line touches IC₂ at point E, which is the equilibrium point. The points that lie to the left of point E lie on the lower indifference curve, i.e., IC₂ and indicate lower satisfaction. The points to the right of point E lie on the higher indifference curve, i.e., IC₃ which indicates the points that are outside the consumer’s budget. The budget line can be tangential to the Indifference Curve at a unique point where MRX_XY = P_X/P_Y and MRS is diminishing.

Question 3.
(a) Discuss two differences between returns to scale and returns to a variable factor. [3]
(b) With the help of a diagram, explain the relationship between AR and MR of a firm under imperfect competition. [3]
(c) Discuss any four features of monopoly market. [6]
Answer:
(a) Two differences between returns to scale and returns to a variable factor are as follows:

Returns to Scale	Returns to Variable Factor
1. Returns to scale indicate the change in the level of output when all factors of production are changed in the same proportion simultaneously.	1. Returns to a variable factor indicate the change in the level of output when the amount of one variable factor used is changed without altering the level of other factors of production.
2. Returns to scale occur over the long run.	2. Returns to a variable factor can be experienced over the short run.
3. In returns to scale, the ratio of variable factors to fixed factors does not change.	3. In returns to a variable factor, the ratio of variable factors to fixed factors changes as the amount of a variable factor used is altered and the amount of fixed factors used remains constant.
4. The three stages of returns to scale are increasing returns to scale, constant returns to scale and diminishing returns to scale.	4. The three stages of returns to a variable factor are increasing returns to a variable factor, diminishing returns to a variable factor and negative returns to a variable factor.

(b) The relationship between AR and MR of a firm under imperfect competition is given below:
Both Monopoly and Monopolistic Competition fall under the category of Imperfect Competition. Therefore, AR and MR curves slope downwards as more units can be sold only by reducing the price. However, there is one major difference between AR and MR curves of monopoly and monopolistic competition.

Under monopolistic competition, the AR and MR curves are more elastic as compared to those of Monopoly. It happens because of the presence of close substitutes under monopolistic competition and the absence of close substitutes under monopoly. So, when the price of a commodity is increased in both the markets, then proportionate fall in demand under monopoly is less than proportionate fall in demand under monopolistic competition.


(c) The features of monopoly market are as follows:
(i) Single seller and a large number of buyers: A monopoly has a single seller or a group of sellers that together sell a good. Therefore, a monopoly has a single firm. However, there are a large number of buyers in a monopoly market. The buyers cannot influence the price of the product.

(ii) Barriers to entry: A monopoly market has high barriers or restrictions on the entry of the new firm. This is because monopolies tend to have exclusive rights over certain resources or patent rights.

(iii) Unique goods: The goods supplied by a monopolist are unique, and there are no close substitutes of these goods.

(iv) High control over prices: As a monopoly market has a single seller, the seller has a high degree of control over the price.

(v) Price discrimination: A monopolist can undertake price discrimination to earn higher profits. Price discrimination refers to charging different price from different consumers for the same good. For example, the price of an amusement park’s ticket can be different for children, adults and elderly people.

Question 4.
(a) Explain the various degrees of price elasticity of demand at different points on a straight-line demand curve. [3]
(b) Show with the help of a diagram, how a perfectly competitive firm earns normal profit in short-run equilibrium. [3]
(c) Explain with the help of diagrams how equilibrium price changes when there is a simultaneous increase of both, demand and supply. [6]
Answer:
(a) The elasticity of demand varies across a straight-line demand curve. To measure the elasticity of demand along a straight-line demand curve, the following formula is used.
E_d = Lower segment of the demand curve/Upper segment of the demand curve.
Let us see the diagram below.

In this diagram, point C divides the demand curve into two equal halves, therefore, the elasticity of demand at point C is 1.
E_d = CE/AC, where CE = AC.
At point A, E_d = infinity. At point A, the demand curve touches the Y-axis, so E_d = AE/0.
At point E, E_d = 0. At point A, the demand curve touches the X-axis, so E_d = 0/AE.
At point B, E_d > 1. This is because the lower segment BE is greater than the upper segment AB. E_d = BE/AB.
At point D, E_d < 1. This is because the lower segment DE is smaller than the upper segment AB. E_d = DE/AD.

(b) A perfectly competitive firm can incur normal profits in short-run at a point where MR = MC and short-run MC is rising. At the point of equilibrium, AR = AC implying a situation of normal profits. Let us see the diagram below.

The normal profits are attained at point Q, where short-run AR = short-run AC and short-run AC is rising.

(c) There can be three scenarios when the demand and supply increase simultaneously. The first scenario is when the increase in demand is more than the increase in supply. The second case is when an increase in demand is equal to the increase in supply. The third case is when an increase in demand is less than the increase in supply.

Case 1: Increase in demand is more than the increase in supply:
When the increase in demand is greater than the increase in supply, there is a simultaneous increase in both the equilibrium quantity and equilibrium supply. In the diagram given below, the original equilibrium is attained at point E where the demand curve D intersects with supply curve S. When the demand increases from D to D’ and the supply increases from S to S’, the new equilibrium is attained at E’ with higher equilibrium price and higher equilibrium quantity.

Case 2: Increase in demand is equal to the increase in supply:
When the increase in demand is equal to the increase in supply, there is an increase in quantity exchanged at the new equilibrium. However, the price remains the same. In the diagram given below, the original equilibrium is attained at point E where the demand curve D intersects with supply curve S. When the demand increases from D to D’ and the supply increases from S to S’, the new equilibrium is attained at E’ with higher equilibrium quantity and same equilibrium price.

Case 3: Increase in demand is less than the increase in supply:
When the increase in demand is less than the increase in supply, there is a decrease in price and an increase in quantity exchanged in the market. The price decreases because the supply exceeds the demand and there is surplus quantity in the market. In the diagram given below, the original equilibrium is attained at point E where the demand curve D intersects with supply curve S. When the demand increases from D to D’ and the supply increases from S to S’, the new equilibrium is attained at E’ with lower equilibrium price and higher equilibrium quantity.

Question 5.
(a) Discuss any two exceptions to the law of demand. [3]
(b) Study the cost function of a firm given below:

Calculate:
(i) AFC
(ii) AC
(iii) MC
(c) A producer is in equilibrium when MR = MC. Explain this statement with the help of a diagram. [6]
Answer:
(a) Two exceptions of the law of demand are as follows:
(i) Giffen goods: Giffen goods refer to the goods for which the demand increases as the price of the good increases. For example, if the price of an essential good such as wheat increases, consumers with lower incomes are left with less money to buy other expensive goods. So, they are forced to consume more wheat.

(ii) Veblen goods: Veblen goods are the goods for which the demand tends to increase as the price increases. This is because some people believe to attain higher utility from goods that are priced more. For example, diamonds are considered to be Veblen goods. Veblen goods tend to have higher prestige value and mostly the luxury goods are considered as Veblen goods. Such goods are mainly considered as representative of wealth by the people.

(c) Producers are at equilibrium when they earn the maximum profit., i.e. the difference between total revenue and the total cost is the highest. According to marginal revenue and marginal cost approach, producers are in equilibrium when MR = MC and MC intersects the MR curve from below.
MR is the additional output earned by selling one more unit of output. MC is the additional cost incurred by producing one more unit of output. Producers compare MR and MC to maximise profits.
It is profitable for producers to produce and sell an additional unit of output as long as the additional revenue earned is greater than the additional cost incurred.

In the diagram, the quantity is shown on the X-axis and revenue is shown on the Y-axis. MC is U-shaped and AR = MR.
MR is equal to MC at two points: A and A’. However, the profit is maximised at the point A’, which corresponds to an output level of OQ’. Between the output levels OQ and OQ’, MR is greater than MC. Therefore, it is profitable for the firm to produce additional output. Therefore, producers are at equilibrium when MR = MC and MC intersects the MR curve from below. After the output level, OQ’, MC is greater than MR. Therefore, if producers continue to produce beyond OQ’, they will incur losses.

Question 6.
(a) Explain how public expenditure can be used as an instrument of fiscal policy to solve the problem of [3]
(i) Income inequality
(ii) Inflation
(b) Differentiate between the revenue and capital components of the union budget. [3]
(c) Discuss briefly the various components of the balance of payment. [6]
Answer:
(a) (i) Public expenditure includes government expenditure on public works, subsidies, relief works and transfer payments. Such expenditures help in generating income and creating employment, which helps in reducing the income gap in society.

(ii) Inflation occurs when there is increased spending in the economy. To control inflation, the government can lower public expenditure. This results in a reduction in aggregate demand which helps in controlling inflationary pressures. Controlling aggregate demand leads to lower growth and hence lower inflation.

(b) The difference between revenue and capital components of the union budget are as follows:

Revenue Components	Capital Components
1. The revenue component of the union budget comprises revenue receipts and revenue expenditure of the government. The revenue receipts include revenue generated from taxes, excise duty and interest receipts. The revenue expenditures include interest payment, expenditure on salaries and expenditure on defence.	1. The capital component of the union budget comprises capital receipts and capital expenditure of the government. The capital receipts include loans taken by the government and selling of its shares by the government. The capital expenditures include the purchase of shares, expenditure on machinery, land and building.
2. The revenue receipts do not reduce the financial assets or create any liabilities for the government. The revenue expenditure does not create an asset for the government or reduce liabilities of the government.	2. The capital receipts reduce financial assets and create liabilities for the government. The capital expenditure create assets for the government and reduce liabilities of the government.

(c) The components of the balance of payment are as follows:
1. Current account: The current account of BOP records the transactions related to exports and imports of goods and services and unilateral transfers from and to the rest of the world. The current account of BOP records the following components:

(i) Visible trade: Visible trade is the net export and import of goods. The balance of visible trade is referred to as the trade balance.
When imports of goods are higher than the export of goods, there is a trade deficit. When the export of goods are higher than the import of good, there is a trade surplus.

(ii) Invisible trade: Invisible trade accounts for net exports and imports of services. Services include shipping, banking and insurance etc.

(iii) Unilateral transfers to and from abroad: Unilateral transfers refer to payments that are provided to or received from the rest of the world as financial aid, gifts and remittances. Unilateral transfers are not factor payments.

(iv) Income receipts and payments: Income receipts and payments include factor payments and receipts. For examples, it includes rent on the property, profits on investments and interest on capital.

2. Capital account: The capital account of BOP records all transactions of a country that alter the status of assets and liabilities of a country. The capital account of BOP records the following components:

(i) Loans to and borrowings from abroad: This component consists of all loans and borrowings given to or received from the rest of the world. It includes both private sector loans and public sector loans.

(ii) Investments to and from abroad: This component includes investments made by non-residents in shares and equities in a country or investment in real estate in any country. The former investment does not provide any control over the asset and is known as portfolio investment. The latter investment provides control over the asset and it is known as foreign direct investment.

3. Autonomous and accommodating items: Autonomous and accommodating items are used to ensure that BOP balances are maintained. These are used to account for errors and discrepancies in BOP account.

Question 7.
(a) Discuss any two limitations of credit creation by commercial banks. [3]
(b) Explain two secondary functions of money.
(c) Discuss any two qualitative methods and any two quantitative methods of credit control used by the Central Bank. [6]
Answer:
(a) Limitations of credit creation by commercial banks are as follows:
(i) Monetary policy of the central bank: Though commercial banks create credit, the circulation of credit is controlled by the central bank in an economy. The central bank uses various techniques to control credit circulation from time to time and thus influence commercial banks’ capacity to create credit.

(ii) Borrowing habits of people: Commercial banks have sufficient funds to lend, however, not everyone in the economy borrows from banks. If fewer people borrow money from banks, leaser credit is created by commercial banks.

(b) Two secondary functions of money are as follows:
(i) Store of value: Money functions as a store of value which means that money holds it’s valued over a period of time. Money resolves the problem of double coincidence of wants because money can be stored over time and it does not lose its value. Though money is not the only store of value as the same purpose can be served by land, gold, etc., it is the most liquid medium of exchange.

(ii) Standard of deferred payments: The payments to be made in a future period are referred to as deferred payments. Money has eased the deferred payments. When money is borrowed from someone, it has to be returned with the interest payment. Keeping an account of these payments in terms of goods is very difficult. For instance, if a farmer borrows some wheat from a person, then it is very difficult to return this loan with interest in terms of wheat of the same quality.

(c) Two qualitative methods of credit control used by the central bank are as follows:
(i) Margin requirement: Margin requirement refers to the gap between the actual value of the security offered for a loan and the value of loan provided. Suppose an individual provides collateral worth ₹ 100 to the bank, and the bank grants a loan of ₹ 80 to the person. Here, the margin requirement is 20 per cent. If the central bank wants to lower the credit flow in the economy, the central bank increases the margin requirement. To increase the credit flow in the economy, the margin requirement is lowered.

(ii) Credit rationing: Credit rationing refers to imposing a quota on loans for certain activities. This measure is used when the central bank wants to check the flow of credit in some particular business activities such as speculative activities. The commercial banks cannot exceed the quota limit while providing loans.

Two quantitative measures of credit control used by the central bank are as follows:
(i) Open market operations: Open market operations refer to the sale and purchase of securities in the open market by the central bank. To lower the credit flow in the economy, the central bank sells securities in the economy. To increase the flow of credit, the central bank buys government securities from the open market.

(ii) Cash reserve ratio (CRR): Cash Reserve Ratio is the minimum percentage of a commercial bank’s total deposits that the bank has to keep with the central bank in the form of cash. Whenever the central bank has to decrease the credit flow in an economy, the central bank increases CRR. Whenever the central bank has to increase the credit flow in an economy, the central bank decreases CRR.

Question 8.
(a) What is meant by an average propensity to consume? Explain its relationship with average propensity to save. [3]
(b) Discuss any two fiscal measures to correct a situation of deficient demand in an economy. [3]
(c) Explain how the equilibrium level of income can be determined with the help of saving and investment approach. [6]
Answer:
(a) Average propensity to consume (APC) is the ratio of consumption expenditure and the level of income in an economy.
APC = C/Y
where
C = Consumption
Y = Level of income
APC indicates the percentage of income spent in the form of consumption expenditure in an economy. If the income of an economy is 100 crores and the consumption expenditure is 65 crores, then APC = 65/100 = 0.65. In this example, 65 per cent of income in the economy is spent in the form of consumption expenditure.
The relationship between APC and APS is described below:
The average propensity to save is the proportion of the income that is saved
APS = S/Y
where
S = Saving
Y = Level of income
We know that Y = C + S
Dividing the equation by Y throughout
1 = C/Y + S/Y
1 = APC + APS
The sum of Average propensity to consume and average propensity to save is equal to 1.

(b) Fiscal measures to correct deficient demand in an economy are discussed below:
(1) Increase in government spending: Government spends money on public works that include infrastructural activities and administrative activities. To rectify deficient demand, the government should increase expenditure on public works such as the construction of highways, flyovers and buildings. Such expenditures increase employment opportunities and provide additional income to people. Increasing public expenditure will help to increase aggregate demand and correct the situation of deficient demand.

(ii) A decrease in taxes: Government collects revenue from people in the form of taxes. Higher taxes imply lower disposable income and lower ability to spend. Thus, to rectify the situation of deficient demand, the government can lower taxes, which help in increasing people’s disposable income. As a result, the ability to spend money goes up and the aggregate demand is likely to increase.

(c) Saving is a function of income, i.e., S = f(Y). Saving is positively related to income so the saving curve is upward sloping. At very low levels of income, saving can be negative. This is because at low levels of income, consumption can be more than income and there can be dissaving in the economy. We will consider the investment to be autonomous, and thus, the investment curve is a horizontal line parallel to the x-axis.

In the diagram, point E is the equilibrium point where S = I. At this point, the amount of money withdrawn from the economy is equal to the amount of money injected into the economy. At this level AD = AS in the economy.

When S > I, some of the planned output remains unsold and producers have to hold the stocks of unsold goods. To clear the stocks, producers will reduce the production and the level of output goes down. Thus, the income in the economy reduces. Lesser income indicates lesser savings and the process will continue till saving becomes equal to investment.

When S < I, people are spending more money than is required to purchase the planned output. This implies AD exceeds AS in the economy. As a result, producers will plan a higher output to cope with the situation. Thus, investment increases up to the point where it becomes equal to investment.

Question 9.
(a) Draw a well-labelled diagram to show a circular flow of income in a two-sector model. What happens to the flow of income when savings equal investment? [3]
(b) What is meant by economic welfare Explain how GDP is an indicator of economic welfare. [3]
(c) From the following data, calculate National Income by Output method and Income method: [6]

Answer 9.
(a) The two-sector circular flow model is shown below. The domestic economy has two sectors which are producers or firms and households. The households provide labour, capital and entrepreneurship to firms and the firms make payments to household in return. The households spend income on consumer goods and services which are produced by the firms.

Money flows from firms to households as payments to factor inputs, and then money flows from households to firms. Therefore, there is a circular flow of money. When S=I in a two-sector model, the circular flow of income in the economy continues unabated. The withdrawal of money from the income stream by savings should be offset by the injection of money through investment expenditure. A constant money income flow in an economy is to be obtained when planned saving equals planned investment.

(b) Economic welfare refers to the level of prosperity and quality of living standards in an economy. Economic welfare can be measured through a variety of factors such as GDP and other indicators which reflect the standard of living of people through the level of literacy, level of health facilities, and quality of the environment. GDP is not a robust measure of economic welfare. GDP is an indicator of the standard of living of people in a country. GDP does not directly account for leisure, levels of literacy and health, environmental quality, changes in inequality of income, improvements in technology. However, GDP tends to have a positive relationship with factors that indicate economic welfare. So, a higher GDP is likely to indicate a higher standard of living and economic welfare.

(c) (i) National Income by Output method = value of output – Value of intermediate consumption – consumption of fixed capital – Indirect taxes + subsidies + Net factor income from abroad.
= ₹ [2500 – 1300 – 160 – 180 + 40 + (-30)] crore
= ₹ 870 crores.

(ii) National Income by Income method = Wages and salaries + Rent + Profit + Interest + social security contribution + Net factor income from abroad + Mixed-Income of self employed.
= ₹ [340 + 110 + 50 + 10 + 30 + (-30) + 360] Crore.
= ₹ 870 crores.

ISC Class 12 Economics Previous Year Question Papers

ISC Political Science Previous Year Question Paper 2016 Solved for Class 12

Maximum Marks: 80
Time allowed: Three hours

• Candidates are allowed additional 15 minutes for only reading the paper. They must NOT start writing during this time.
• Answer Question 1 (Compulsory) from Part I and five questions from Part II, choosing two questions from Section A, two questions from Section B and one question from either Section A or Section B.
• The intended marks for questions or parts of questions are given in brackets [ ].

Part—I
(Compulsory)

Question 1.
Answer briefly each of the questions (i) to (x): [10 x 2]
(i) On what basis are the states classified as unitary and federal ?
(ii) Differentiate between an enacted constitution and an evolved constitution.
(iii) Explain briefly, the First-Past-the-Post system of election.
(iv) What are the powers enjoyed exclusively by the Rajya Sabha ?
(v) Why are the civil servants called politically neutral members of the executive ?
(vi) What is the composition of the Supreme Court of India and the Supreme Court of the United States of America ?
(vii) Which fundamental right enables a person to petition the courts for issuance of writs ?
(viii) Give any two differences between the cabinet systems of India and the United States of America.
(ix) Briefly explain the composition of the Gram Panchayat.
(x) Mention any two forms of political violence in India.
Answer:
(i) The classification of states is done on the basis of relations between the Center and State government. In case of Unitary government all powers are vested with the Central government. Whereas in case of the federal government, the power is divided between the Center and the State by a Constitution.

(ii) An Enacted Constitution is a man-made constitution. It is made, enacted and adopted by an assembly or council called a Constituent Assembly or Constitutional Council. It is duly passed after a thorough discussion over its objectives, principles and provisions. It is written in the form of a book or as a series of documents and in a systematic and formal manner. The Constitutions of India the USA, Japan, China are enacted constitutions.

An evolved constitution is one which is not made at any time by any assembly of persons or an institution. Evolved Constitutions is the product of historical evolution and of political needs and practical wisdom of the people. The Constitution of Great Britain presents a key example of an evolved constitution

(iii) The First-Past-The-Post system is the simplest form of majority system, using single member districts and candidate- centered voting. The voter is presented with the names of the nominated candidates and votes by choosing only one, of them. The winning candidate is simply the person who wins the most votes. E.g. India, and the United States.

(iv) Under Article 67, a resolution seeking the removal of the Vice-President can originate only in the Rajya Sabha. After the Rajya Sabha passes such a resolution by a majority of the members present of the House, it goes for approval of the Lok Sabha.

Any resolution seeking creation of one or more All-India Services, including All-India Judicial Services, if such is necessary in the national interest, can only be initiated in the Rajya Sabha. Only after the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution to this effect by a special majority, i.e., Two-thirds of the members present and voting, can the Parliament legislate on this. A resolution seeking legislation on any subject of the State List can only originate in the Rajya Sabha, if it thinks that such is necessary or in the national interest.

(v) The civil servants are called politically neutral members of the executive because they cannot join political parties and participate in political movements. They are not affected by the political changes which keep on coming in the political executive. Whichever party may come to power and make the government, the civil servants remain politically neutral and carry out their assigned departmental roles impartially and faithfully.

(vi) The Constitution of India provided for a Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and not more than 25 judges who are appointed by the President of India with consultation of the Chief Justice of India. The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and such number of Associate Justices as may be fixed by Congress. The number of Associate Justices is currently fixed at eight. Power to nominate the Justices is vested in the President of the United States and appointments are made with the advice and consent of the Senate.

(vii) Right to Constitutional Remedies enables a person petition the Supreme Court for issuance of writs.

(viii) India has a system of Parliamentary government while it is Presidential system in the USA. In case of a parliamentary system the Cabinet collectively decides the government’s direction, especially in regard to legislation passed by the parliament. In countries with a presidential system, such as the United States, the Cabinet plays a primary role as an official advisory council to the head of government. In a parliamentary system, the president will almost always follow this advice, whereas in a presidential system, a president who is also head of government and political leader may depart from the Cabinet’s advice if he does not agree with it.

(ix) Gram Panchayat is the organization of elected panehas by the members of Gram Sabha of the village. It is a self-government organization. The number of members in a Gram Panchayat depends upon the population of the village which may vary from state to state .Generally, the number of elected panehas in a Gram Panchayat varies between seven and seventeen members. There is provision for reservation of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Women candidates. The head of the Panchayat is known as ‘Sarpanch’.

(x) Two forms of political violence in India are genocide and war.

Part-II

Section—A
Answer any three questions

Question 2.
(a) What is meant by a liberal democratic state ? Discuss any four features of such a state. [6]
(b) Compare the federal systems of the United States of America and India. [6]
Answer:
(a) A Liberal democratic state is based on the ideology of a representative democracy with liberal outlook that focuses special attention on minorities and weaker sections. This outlook can be seen in the Indian Constitution.
Features :

• It is characterized by fair, free and competitive elections between multiple distinct political parties,
• Powers are separated into different branches of government,
• Equal protection of human rights, civil rights, civil liberties, and political freedom for all people.
• Liberal democracies often draw upon a constitution, either formally written or unmodified, to delineate the powers of
• government.

(b) In order to compare the federal form of government in India and US we need to discuss both the similarities and differences between the two countries which are as follows-
Similarities :

Written Constitution : Both US and India have a written constitution based on which the federal political structure has been set up and both federal governments are functioning. Both constitutions have provisions for amending the constitution to meet the growing social, political and economic needs and demands of their respective countries.

Bill of Rights and Fundamental Rights : The US constitution has ensured the fundamental rights of its citizens through ‘The Bill of Rights’. The Indian Constitution has guaranteed the fundamental rights of the people through articles 14 to 35 in Part III.

Supremacy of the Federal or Union Government : In both the countries the law enacted by the Federal or Union Government will have over-riding effect over the law enacted by the states on the same subject. Thus Federal or Union Government is supreme in the present federal structure.

Separation of Powers : Both US and Indian Constitutions have three basic divisions in their federal set up known as executive, legislature and judiciary. The executive governs the country, the legislature enacts laws and the judiciary administers justice. President of US is the chief executive head of US, whereas the Union cabinet headed by the Prime Minister is the real chief executive body in India. Both US and India have a bicameral legislature. US ‘ legislature has an upper and lower house known as the House of Senate and the House of Representatives respectively and the Indian Parliament has Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha as its Lower and Upper house respectively. Both US and India have a well organized judiciary,

having the Supreme Court or the Federal Court as the apex court and a number of other courts in various states to administer original and appellate jurisdictions.

Differences:
The Constitution of US is very rigid in comparison to Indian Constitution : The constitution of US is very brief and rigid running into only a few pages, whereas the constitution of India is very voluminous containing as many as 25 parts, 12 schedules and 448 Articles. Since the US constitution is very rigid, the provisions meant for amending the constitution are also very rigid and more formal. Therefore, it is easy to amend the Indian Constitution, since it involves four different types of procedures which are comparatively easy than the amending procedure of the US Constitution.

US has the Presidential Form of Government, India has the Parliamentary Form of Government: In the US, the President is the head of the state while In India, the President is only a nominal head. The Indian cabinet and the Prime Minister are collectively and directly responsible and answerable to the parliament and indirectly to the people, whereas, the US President has constitutional obligations and duties and of course answerable to the people.

Differences between the Legislatures of US and India : In India, the lower house or the Lok Sabha is more powerful and its members are directly elected by the people and the members of the Upper house or Rajya Sabha are indirectly elected every two years. The Lok Sabha members represent their constituencies on the basis of their population strength; In the US, the House of Representatives are elected on the basis of the population strength of a state, but irrespective of the size of the state or its population.

Question 3.
(a) Discuss briefly three kinds of Minority Representation. [6]
(b) Explain what is meant by a bi-party system. Examine any four merits of this system. [6]
Answer:
(a) Three kinds of Minority Representation are: Cumulative Vote System : Involves with member constituencies. A voter has as many votes as the number of seats. A voter has the right to the option of either giving his votes to all, to a few or even to concentrate all his votes just for one candidate. A well organised minority has an opportunity to get at least one of its representatives elected by cumulating all its votes in favor of its own candidate.

Limited Vote System : Involves multi-member constituencies : Voter has certain number of votes which is less than the number of seats to be filled. This system acts as a check on the monopolization of representation in a constituency by a single political body and helps minority to get at least one seat.

Communal Representation : This entails Separate electorate for separate communities. A second method is reservation of seats in joint electorate : the voter may cast votes for the candidates of communities other than their own. But in deciding the result, a member of community who gets the highest number of votes among candidates of that community will be elected.

(b) Bi-party system means there are only two major parties and the rest of the parties are less important.
Merits:
Stable Government : The Government is more stable in a bi-party system, because the party which has a majority in the legislature forms the Government and the other party acts as opposition.

Direct Election of the Government : In this system the Government is elected by the people directly. As the voters know the party in whose favor they are casting their votes. Thus, the people vote for the party whom they wish to form a Government.

It Ensures A Strong Government and Continuity of Policy : Because of the stability of the Government in a bi-party system, it is strong and it can pursue good policy continuously.

Responsibility for the Failure and Short-comings of the Government Easily Located in Their system : In a bi-party system, the Government is in the hands of one party, and thus it is responsible for the reputation of the government

Question 4.
(a) Discuss three disadvantages of a unicameral legislature. [6]
(b) Explain why the United States Senate is considered to be the most powerful second chamber in the world. [6]
Answer:
(a) Unicameral system of parliament is the practice of having one legislative or parliamentary house. This system typically exists in small and homogeneous unitary states. Examples of countries that exercise unicameral system include the People’s Republic of China.

If there is only one house, then the house in course of time may become arrogant. It may act arbitrarily and become autocratic.

Modem states are complex societies. They require more laws of complex matters to be made. A single house cannot give adequate time for thorough discussion as to the making of those complex laws. A second chamber would reduce the burden of a single chamber considerably.

Unicameralism does not provide any opportunity for revision of bills. The single chamber may pass have and ill considered bills. It may be swayed away by emotion and passion.

(b) The U.S. Senate is considered to be the most powerful second chamber in the World for the following reasons.
It is the only legislative house which enjoys direct executive powers. It shares with the President the power of making top ranking appointments and through this privilege it controls the internal administration of the Federal government.

The Membership of the Senate is small but has a long tenure of 6 years. Thus the Senators are not worried about their election and can do full justice to the policy and programmes of the Party.

The Senate enjoys equal powers in legislative and financial spheres. In India, England etc., the upper house is given lesser authority than the Lower house in the spheres of legislation. But in the US both the Senate and the House of Representatives enjoy equal powers in case of ordinary and financial legislation.

Question 5.
(a) Explain three legislative powers of the President of the United States of America. [6]
(b) we have made his position one of authority and dignity. The constitution wants to create neither a real executive nor a mere figurehead. ” (Jawaharlal Nehru) [6]
Discuss the constitutional position of the Indian President in the tight of this statement.
Answer:
(a) The Legislative powers of the U.S. president are as follows :
The president can veto any bill passed by Congress and, unless two-thirds in each house vote to over-ride the veto, the bill does not become law.

When signing a bill the president can also issue a signing statement that expresses his opinion on the constitutionality of a bill’s provisions that intrude on executive power. He may even declare them unenforceable.

The president may propose a legislation, he or she believes is necessary. If Congress should adjourn without acting on those proposals, the president has the power to call it into special session.

(b) The President of India has been given wide and far-reaching powers which he enjoys both during normal and emergency times. But after the passing if the Constitution Forty-Second (1976) and Forty-Fourth (1978) Amendment Acts, the President of our Republic has become a Constitutional figurehead and nothing beyond that.

Today, President’s position is one of great authority and dignity, but at the same time strictly constitutional. Thus, the President is bound in every case to act on the advice of his Prime Minister and other Ministers who are responsible to the Lok Sabha and responsive to the public opinion. The powers really reside in the Ministry and the Parliament and not in the President as such. He has no discretion in our Parliamentary system of government.

The Supreme Court through various decisions has upheld the position that the President is a constitutional head and he is as much bound by the advice of his Ministers during emergency as during normal times. For example, the President can declare a proclamation of the National Emergency (Article 352) only after receiving a written communication of the decision of the Union Cabinet. If the President abuses his powers, he can be removed from office by a process of impeachment.

However the President is not a mere figure-head. Unlike the British Monarchy which is hereditary, the President of our Republic is an elected Head of the State. In our coalition politics, there are some grey areas where the President may still have to use his own judgment and wisdom. These are :

• Appointment of the Prime Minister,
• Dismissal of the Union Ministry,
• Dissolution of the Lok Sabha, and,
• Seeking information on all matters of administration and legislation from the Prime Minister etc.

Question 6.
(a) Critically evaluate the principles of Judicial Review, with reference to India. [6]
(b) How is judicial independence ensured in the Constitution of the United States of America ? [6]
Answer:
(a) Judicial Review refers to the power of the judiciary to interpret the constitution and to declare any such law or order of the legislature and executive null and void, if it finds them in conflict the Constitution of India :

The critics describe Judicial Review as an undemocratic system. It empowers the court to decide the fate of the laws passed by the legislature, which represent the sovereign-will of the people.

The Constitution of India does not clearly describe the system of Judicial Review. It rests upon the basis of several articles of the Constitution.

When a law is struck down by the Supreme Court as unconstitutional, the decision becomes effective from the date on which the judgement is delivered. Now a law can face Judicial Review only when a question of its consti-tutionality arises in any case being heard by the Supreme Court. Such a case can come before the Supreme Court after 5 or 10 or more years after the enforcement of that law. As such when the Court rejects it as unconstitutional, it creates administrative problems. A Judicial Review decision creates more problems than it solves.

Several critics regard the Judicial Review system as a reactionary system. They hold that while determining the constitutional validity of a law, the Supreme Court often adopts a legalistic and conservative approach. It can reject progressive laws enacted by the legislature.

Judicial Review is a source of delay and inefficiency.

The critics further argue that the Judicial Review can make the Parliament irresponsible as it can decide to depend upon the Supreme Court for determining the constitutionality/ reasonableness of a law passed by it.

(b) Judicial independence is ensured in the Constitution of the United States of America in the following ways :
The federal judges may be removed only by impeachment and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes Judicial impeachments are conducted by the House of Representatives and require conviction by the Senate. They are very rare. The process is deliberately difficult, to guard against judges being impeached for political reasons.

Article III of the Constitution further ensures that compensation for federal judges “shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.” Neither Congress nor public opinion can “punish” a judge for an unpopular decision by threatening his paycheck. With an assured salary and permanent tenure in a respected office, judges have no real incentive to abuse authority so they are much more likely to discharge their duties faithfully.

Judicial independence is also enhanced by the selection process for federal judges. Federal judges are appointed by the president when vacancies occur. They must be confirmed by a majority vote in the Senate before taking office. Presidential appointments of judges leave a visible and important legacy, so presidents carefully consider those whom they select based on certain criteria presidents reputation, judicial record, experience, ideology, loyalty, etc.

Section — B
Answer any two questions

Question 7.
(a) Discuss the importance of the Preamble to the Indian Constitution. [6]
(b) Briefly discuss the Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution. How are these principles implemented ? [6]
Answer:
(a) The Preamble to a Constitution embodies the fundamental values and the philosophy, on which the Constitution is based. The philosophy of the Indian Constitution is reflected in the Preamble.

The term ‘sovereign’ states that India is an independent State and it is not subject to control by any external power or authority though it is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The word ‘Republic’ means India is neither a monarchy nor an oligarchy. We have an elected President instead of a king at the head of our State. The preamble declares that the India is Republic and shall be a . democratic in the representative form. The ultimate power remains in the electorate comprising the entire adult population. T o emphasize these values the Constitution framers have resorted to the use of the con-cepts like justice, liberty, equality and fraternity.

Justice-social, economic and political to be secured through the provisions of Fundamental Rights. The Directive Principles of State Policy ensures that Liberty is guaranteed to the individuals through the provision of Fundamental Rights, which are enforceable in the court of law. The Preamble secures to all citizens equality of States and opportunity in civic, political. The unity and integrity of the nation is sought to secured by the use of the word ‘Fraternity’ in the Preamble and by the provisions of fundamental duties and single citizenship in the Constitution. The use of these words in the Preamble shows, it embodies the basic philosophy and fundamental values on which the Constitution is based. It very well reflects the dreams and aspirations of the founding fathers of the Constitution.

(b) The Directive Principles of State Policy is contained in Part IV, Articles 36-51 of the Indian constitution. The Directive principles are broad directives given to the state in accordance with which the legislative and executive powers of the state are to be exercised.

Socialist and Economic Principles : The socialist and economic principles always aim to shape our country into a Welfare State. The State shall strive to minimize the inequalities in income and try to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities and opportunities by directing the following policies.

• adequate means of livelihood for all citizen irrespective of men and women equally.
• equal distribution of wealth and resources among all classes.
• equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
• just and humane conditions of work, a decent standard of living, full employment, leisure and social and cultural opportunities.
• protection of children, youth against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment.
• provision of work and compulsory education for all people, relief in case of unemployment, old age, sickness and disability and other cases of undeserved want.
• protection of adult and child labor.

Gandhian Principles : Our constitution framers wanted to implement the Gandhian principles for which the State shall take the following steps :

• to organize village panchayats and endow them with power and authority to enable them to function as unit of self-government.
• to promote cottage industries and village industries on an individual or co-operative basis in rural areas.
• to prohibit consumption of intoxicating and injurious drinks and drugs.
• to promote educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people particularly SC’s, ST’s to establish social justice and equity.
• to organize agricultural and animal husbandry on modem and scientific lines.
• to prohibit the slaughter of cows and other useful cattle.
• to protect and improve environment and safeguard the forests and wild life of the country.
• to protect, preserve and maintain places of national historical importance.
• to separate the judiciary from the executive.

3. International Principles : Principles enjoined in Article 51 under international principles are some provisions to the State relating to ensure international peace and security. The State shall attempt:

• to promote international peace and security;
• to maintain just and honorable relations between nations;
• to foster respect for international law and treaty obligations;
• to encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.

The State has made and is making many efforts to implement the Directive Principles. The Programme of Universalisation of Elementary Education and the five-year plans has been accorded the highest priority in order to provide free education to all children up to the age of 14 years. Welfare schemes for the weaker sections are being implemented both by the Central and State Governments. The government provides free textbooks to students belonging to scheduled castes or scheduled tribes.

Several Land Reform Acts were enacted to provide ownership rights to poor farmers. The Minimum Wages Act of 1948 empowers government to fix minimum wages for employees engaged in various employments. The Consumer Protection Act of 1986 provides for the better protection of consumers. The Equal Remuneration Act of 1976, provides for equal pay for equal work for both men and women.[39] The Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana was launched in 2001 to attain the objective of gainful employment for the rural poor. Panchayati Raj now covers almost all states and Union territories.[41] India’s Foreign Policy has also to some .

Question 8.
(a) Explain the main features of the 73rd Amendment to the Indian Constitution, relating to Panchayati Raj institutions. [6]
(b) Briefly explain the composition and tenure of a Municipal Corporation. [6]
Answer:
(a) This amendment implements the article 40 of the Directive Principles of State Policy which says that ‘State shall take steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of selfgovernment’. The Act gives a Constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj institutions. The State Governments are under the Constitutional obligation to adopt the new Panchayati Raj System in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

Features Of The Panchayati Raj Institution:
The Act provides for a three-tier system of the Panchayati Raj in the States, Panchayat means an institution of local self-Govemment for rural areas. Gram Sabha, The Act provides for a Gram Sabha as the foundation of the Panchayati Rai System. It is a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rolls of the village comprised within the area of the Panchayat at the village level. It is a village Assembly consisting of all the registered voters in the area of a Panchayat. It shall exercise such powers and perform such functions at the village level as determined by the State Legislature .

Duration of Panchayats : The Act provided for a five-year term of office to the Panchayat at every level. The Act provided for the reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Schedules Tribes in every Panchayat. The Act provides for the reservation of not less than one-third of the total number of seats for women.

The State Legislature endows the Panchayats with such powers and authority with respect to preparation of plans for economic develop¬ment and social justice The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of all elections to the Panchayats shall be vested in the State Election Commission.

(b) The urban local government which works for the development of any Metropolitan City with a population of more that! one million is known as the Municipal Corporation in India. The members of the Municipal Corporation are directly elected by the people and are called Councilors. The Municipal Corporation consists of a committee which includes a Mayor with Councilors. The Mayor heads the Municipal Corporation. The corporation remains under the charge of Municipal Commissioner. Each Municipal Corporation includes the following categories of members.

Directly elected members from the area of Municipal Corporation.The strength of the directly elected members depends upon the size of the population of the urban area,

Members of State Legislative Assembly, who represent the area of Municipal Corporation. Some reserva-tion of seats is there in every Municipal Corporation for

• Scheduled Castes,
• Back ward Classes and
• Women.

The ratio of seats reserved for Scheduled Castes is in proportion to the total population of Scheduled Castes in the Municipal Corporation area. In every Municipal Corporation, two seats are . reserved for Backward Classes. At least 1/3 of the seats reserved for Scheduled Castes are reserved for women belonging to Scheduled Castes. At least 1/3 of the seats to be filled by direct election in each Municipal Corporation are reserved for women (including the seats reserved for Women belonging to Scheduled . Castes).

Tenure:
Every Municipal Corporation has a term of 5 years and begins from the date of the first meeting. Elections take place after the expiry of the year’s term. If in the opinion of the government, a Municipal Corporation is not competent to perform its duties or persistently makes mistakes in the performance of duties imposed on it or exceeds any of its powers, the Government can dissolve such a Corporation before the expiry of its term. After dissolution of a Municipal Corporation a new corporation has to be elected and constituted within six months.

Question 9.
(a) Briefly examine the effects of communalism in India. [6]
(b) Discuss briefly four causes of regionalism in India. [6]
Answer:
(a) Communalism may be defined as a belief that people who follow the same religion have common secular same political, economic and social interests. So, here socio-political communalities arises. These common secular interests of one religion are dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the follower of another religion .The interests of the follower of the different religion or of different ‘communities’ are seen to be completely incompatible, antagonist and hostile .The effects of communalism are as follows :

• Communalism tends to separate people on the basis of religion, language, territories and ethnic origins.
• It leads to communal riots and curfew situations.
• Communalism results in terrorist activi-ties.
• A communal thought always tends to establish political dominance over particular religious community.
• The country weakens when political parties are formed and political activities are conducted on the communal lines. One of the’ most negative impacts of commu-nalism is riots, violence and homicides.

(b) The Geographical Factors : Indian has great diversity in terms of its relief features. The resources.Industries, soil, irrigation etc., are not similar and therefore they also cause differences among the people.

Political Factors : The administrative policies and decisions as well as the developmental plans taken at the national level may not satisfy all people of the country and these people, who remain dissatisfied, may feel that their interest are not properly safeguarded and may result in regional feeling.

Economic Factors : In the present times, uneven developments in different parts of the country is a prime reason for regionalism. There are certain regions in the country where industrial development, educational and health facilities, communication-net work agricultural development has made sufficient progress as compared to others. Thus the feeling of regionalism develops due to negligence of the backward areas. Language culture, customs etc., these factors have played major role in creating the feelings of regionalism, especially among illiterates or less educated people.

ISC Class 12 Political Science Previous Year Question Papers